•  I'  I 


II 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Paul  Popenoe 


IRRIGATION 


FOR  THE 


FARM,  GARDEN,  AND  ORCHARD. 


BY 


HENRY   STEWART, 


CIVIL  AND  XTSrya  EKGIXEEB,    member   of   the  civil  ENQINKEKS'  club  or   TBX 
NOBTH-WEST  :  AUTHOR  OF    "  BHEPHEBD'S  MAKUAL,"  ETC. 


VfTTH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK: 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY, 

•1913 


Entered,  accoramg  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1P86.  by 

DAVID    W.    JUDD, 
In  the  OflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Printed    i:;    U.    S.    A. 


b?5^ 


TABLE    OF    COXTENTS. 

PAGK. 
CHAPTER    I. 
The  N^ecessity  for  Irri;,'ation T— iO 

CHAPTER    II. 
Importauco  of  an  Adequate  Supply  of  Water 11--20 

CHAPTER    m. 

Amount  of  Water  Needed  for  Irri^'atiou 21—30 

CHAPTER    IV. 
Irrii;ation  of  Gardens 31 39 

CHAPTER    V. 
Preparation  of  the  Surface 40—50 

CHAPTER    VI. 
Irrigation  by  Pipes  and  Tiles 51—57 

CHAPTER    VII. 
Irrigation  with  Liquid  Manure 57—77 

CHAPTER    Vm. 
Culture  of  Irrigated  Garden  Crops 7S— 87 

CHAPTER    IX. 
Irrigation  of  Orchards  and  Vineyards 87-95 

CHAPTER    X. 
Irrigation  of  Meadows 


CHAPTER    XI. 
Use  of  Springs  in  Irrigation 


CHAPTER    XII. 

Formation  of  Water  Meadows 


CH.APTER    Xni. 
Irrigation  of  Meadows  and  Pastures 


CHAPTER    XIV 
Drainage  of  Irrigated  Fields . 


CHAPTER    XV. 
Management  of  Irrigated  Fields 


CHAPTER    XVI 

Irrigation  of  Arable  Lands 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

Preparing  tlie  Surface  for  Irrigation.. 


..  95—105 
105—117 
.118—1.33 
.133-115 
.145—152 
.  15-2-1  fi-2 
lf.3-188 
IS!) -20(5 


CHAPTER     XVIir. 

Supply  of  U  at,.r-Da,ns-P,„n„s-R,.servoirs-Artesian  W,-U< oot_o37 

„       ,  CHAPTER    XIX. 

Canals  and  their  Constiuction 

237—252 

„     ,  CHAPTER     XX. 

Reclamation  of  River  Flats,  Salt  Marshes  and  Submerged  Lands  2.53-263 

O 


LIST    OF   WOEKS   AND    PEKIODICALS, 

WmCH    HAVE     BEEN   CONSULTED   OR   QUOTED   IN    THE   PREPA 
RATION   OF    THIS  WORK. 

Etudes  sur  les  irrigations  de  Pyrenees  Orientates.    M.  Vigan. 

Hconomie  Rurale.    Boussingault. 

Experiences  sur  Vemploi  des  eaux  dans  les  irrigations.     Herve  Mangon. 

Italian  Irrigation.    M.  Baird  Smith.      . 

Irrigation  in  Southern  Europe.     C.  C.  Scott  Moncriefif. 

Des  Irrigations  du  Piemont,  etc.    A.  Vignotti. 

Manual  of  Hydrology.     N.  Beardmore. 

Etude  sur  le  service  Hydraulique.    De  Passy. 

Irrigations  du  midi  de  VEspagne.     M.  Aymard. 

Spanish  Irrigation.     C  R.  Markham. 

La  Science  des  Fontaines.     Dumas. 

HydrcHogie  Agricole.     De  BuflTon. 

Traiti  d''hydrauliques  Agricoles.    Duponchel. 

Outlines  of  Modern  Farming.     R.  Scott  Burns. 

Hydraulic  Engineering.     C.  R.  Bumell. 

Hydraulic  fables.     John  Neville. 

Drainage,  Irrigations,  etc.     M.  Barrol. 

Manuel  de  VIrrigateur.     M.  Villeroy. 

Irrigations  et  assainissement  des  terres.    Pareto. 

Theoriques  et  Pratiques  sur  les  irrigations.     De  Cossigny. 

Pratiqjie  des  Irrigations  en  France  et  en  Alger ie.     F.  Vidaiin. 

Culture  des  plantes  IndusirieUes.    G.  Heuze. 

Heclamation  and  Improvement  of  Agricultural  Land.     D.  Stevenson. 

Journal  d'' Agriculture  pratique.    Paris. 

Heports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.    Washington. 

Pacijic  Rural  Press.    San  Francisco. 

American  Agriculturist.    New  York. 


PKEFACE  TO  THE  SECOXB  EDITION. 


When  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  issued,  the 
practice  of  irrigation  in  America  was  a  new  thing,  so  far 
as  its  application  to  our  modern  system  of  agriculture 
was  concerned.  Now  there  are,  all  through  the  arid  parts 
of  the  country,  vast  irrigating  canals,  which  water  many 
millions  of  acres,  and  support  a  great  number  of  industri- 
ous farmers  and  supply  food  to  thousands  of  hardy  miners, 
who  would  otherwise  find  it  impossible  to  carry  on  their 
adventurous  but  profitable  industry.  No  other  country 
in  the  world  offers  such  vast  opportunities  for  enterprise 
in  reclaiming  arid  wastes  by  means  of  irrigation,  as  the 
United  States,  and  millions  of  farmers  may  yet  find 
homes  where  now  all  is  desolation  and  solitude,  as  soon  as 
the  aid  of  capital  is  invoked  to  perform  the  necessary 
preliminary  work. 

In  considering  this  grand  future,  and  the  possibilities 
in  irrigation  which  remain  to  be  accomplished,  we  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  great  number  of  smaller  enterprises, 
that  can  be  carried  out  on  farms  which  have  a  supply 
of  water  that  may  be  used  for  the  irrigation  of  meadows 
and  fields.  Grass  is  the  grand  farm  crop.  It  supports 
all  our  live  stock,  and  is  the  very  basis  upon  which  our 
agricultural  prosperity  is  built  up.  Clearly,  grass  is  the 
one  thing  of  which  a  farmer  can  never  have  too  much. 
It  is  quite  as  clear  that  no  farmer  has  enough  of  it. 
Yet,  by  means  of  Irrigation,  the  yield  of  this  indispens- 
able and  invaluable  crop  mighl  be  enlarged  many  fold. 
Market  gardeners  suffer  every  year  from  dry  weather, 
which  ruins  their  most  valuable  crops  ;  while  water  in 
abundance,  can  be  procured  under  the  surface  at  a  small 
(5) 


6  PREFACE  TO   THE   SECOXD   EDITION. 

expense,  and  stored  in  reservoirs  for  use  when  it  is 
needed.  Fruit  growers  are  equally  interested  in  irriga- 
tion, and  in  the  active  competition  now  existing,  and 
which  must  always  exist  in  the  future,  those  who  will 
secure  their  crops  by  means  of  cheap  but  efEective  irri- 
gating works,  will  gain  a  substantial  advantage  over  their 
competitors,  and  place  themselves  in  a  position  of  security 
and  independence  of  the  seasons. 

The  profits  which  are  derived  from  work  and  enter- 
prise, depend,  not  so  much  upon  the  extent  of  these,  as 
upon  the  effectiveness  of  the  methods  employed  to  make 
them  productive.  Five  acres,  or  ten,  well  cultivated, 
and  supplied  with  abundant  water,  will  yield,  in  the 
course  of  ten  years,  as  much  profit  as  fifty,  or  a  hundred 
acres,  equally  well  cultivated,  but  without  any  provision 
for  the  necessary  moisture.  Many  years  of  observation, 
and  renewed  experiences,  during  the  past  eight  years, 
have  shown  that  at  least  one  year  in  three,  there  is  a 
deficiency  of  water  for  the  production  of  full  crops,  and 
the  crops  of  the  greatest  value  suffer  the  most  in  such 
seasons.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  do  more  than  to  call 
attention  to  these  facts,  leaving  to  the  good  sense  and 
the  enterprise  of  Amei'ican  farmers,  the  adoption  of  the 
requisite  methods  of  evading  from  drouth  losses,  and  the 
securing  of  a  more  satisfactory  remuneration  for  their 
labor,  by  the  use  of  the  surplus  water  on  their  farms, 
both  flowing  upon  the  surface  or  below  it,  in  such  ways 
as  are  pointed  out  in  the  following  pages. 

Heney  Stewart. 
HacTcensacTc,  N.  J.,  January  7,  1886. 


IRRIGATIOI 

For  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard. 


C  HA  P  T  E  R    I. 

THE   NECESSITY    FOR   IRRIGATION. 

The  American  climate  is  especially  subject  to  destructive 
drouths,  and  scarcely  a  year  passes  in  which  the  crops 
do  not  partially  or  wholly  fail  over  extensive  districts. 
That  famines  do  not  occur  is  not  that  there  are  no  fail- 
ures of  crops  sufficiently  serious  to  cause  them,  but  that 
our  social  system  is  so  instantly  helpful  in  case  of  need, 
that  the  want  and  misery  that  would  otherwise  certainly 
occur  are  averted  by  immediate  and  generous  relief.  The 
farmer,  when  rain  fails,  is  helpless,  yet  there  may  be 
abundant  water  flowing  uselessly  past  his  suffering  crops. 
We  possess  vast  districts,  the  soil  of  which  is  of  the  high- 
est fertility,  but  which  remain  barren  and  desert  because 
the  climate  is  rainless,  yet  large  rivers  flow  through  these 
arid  tracts,  and  exhaustless  subterranean  streams  pass 
through  the  subsoil.  Water  only  is  needed  to  make  these 
tracts  highly  productive.  The  proof  of  this  exists  in  the 
fact  that  already  several  successful  efforts  have  been 
made  to  reclaim  portions  of  these  dry  wastes  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  system  of  irrigation.  But  it  is  not  only  a 
question  whether  or  not  crops  can  be  produced  where 
they  are  now  impossible,  or  whether  or  not  the  effects  of 

(7) 


8  IRRIGATION. 

drouths  may  be  averted  by  irrigation,  but  whether  or 
not  the  general  average  of  the  crops  may  be  largely  in- 
creased by  the  systematic  use  of  partial  irrigation,  and 
the  use  of  such  supplies  of  water  as  a  majority  of  farmers 
can  readily  avail  themselves  of  in  every  part  of  the 
30untry. 

What  farmer  is  there  who  has  not,  in  the  majority  of 
seasons,  felt  that  some  at  least  of  his  crops  could  have 
been  largely  benefited  and  increased  by  a  copious  supply 
of  water  at  critical  times  ?  Market  gardeners,  whose 
crops  on  the  average  reach  a  value  of  several  hundred 
dollars  per  acre,  and  to  whom  a  loss  of  crop  is  partial  or 
complete  ruin,  every  year  experience  a  vast  amount  of 
loss  which  might  have  been  avoided  were  a  supply  of 
water  available.  A  portion  of  this  loss,  in  the  shape  of 
higher  prices,  necessarily  falls  upon  the  consumers,  whose 
resources  are  insufficient  to  meet  the  increased  demand  ; 
and  the  poorer  of  them  are  compelled  in  consequence  to 
deny  themselves  those  articles  of  food  which  are  necessary 
to  their  complete  health.  The  failure  is  then  a  public 
calamity.  The  season  of  1874  was  especially  disastrous 
to  strawberry  growers,  whose  crops  failed  for  want  of  rain 
at  the  season  when  the  fruit  is  formed.  Here  were  losses 
approaching  in  many  cases  the  large  sum  of  a  thousand 
dollars  per  acre  to  the  growers,  which  might  have  been 
avoided  by  the  timely  application  of  water.  Every  year 
there  are  more  or  less  of  such  cases  in  connection  with 
such  special  crops.  The  present  year  (1876)  has  been 
equally  disastrous  to  gardeners  and  market  farmers  over 
a  large  extent  in  the  East.  The  great  difficulty  experi- 
enced by  the  orange  growers  of  Florida  is  precisely  this 
want  of  water  at  critical  periods.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
multiply  instances. 

No  one  doubts  the  absolute  necessity  of  water  to  the 
growth  of  plants.  The  value  of  water  as  a  nutriment  or 
as  a  means  of   conveying  nutriment  to  plants,  however. 


■WATEB   A   FOOD   FOR   PLANTS.  9 

depends  upon  some  facts  in  vegetable  physiology  that  are 
not  generally  known  or  considered.  These  may  be  con- 
densed into  the  following  statement: 

Growing  plants  contain  from  70  to  95  per  cent  of  water. 
To  the  extent  that  water  supplies  this  necessary  constitu- 
ent of  a  growing  plant,  it  is  an  actual  nutriment. 

The  solid  portion  of  the  plant  consists  of  matters  w  hich 
enter  into  it  only  while  in  solution  in  water.  Water  is 
the  vehicle  by  which  the  solid  part  of  a  plant  is  carried 
into  its  circulation  for  assimilation.  If  water  is  not  ade- 
quately supplied,  an  insufficient  quantity  of  nutriment 
only  will  be  carried  into  the  circulation  of  the  plant,  and 
its  growth  will  be  stunted  or  arrested  altogether. 

No  water,  whether  it  be  in  the  state  of  liquid  or  vapor, 
can  enter  into  any  other  part  of  a  plant  than  its  roots. 
The  common  idea  that  water  or  Avatery  vapor  is  ever  ab- 
sorbed through  the  leaves  of  a  plant  is  unfounded. 

The  quantity  of  water  that  must  pass  through  the 
roots  of  a  plant  of  our  ordinary  farm  crops,  and  to  be 
transpired  through  the  leaves,  to  carry  it  from  germina- 
tion to  maturity,  is  equal  to  a  depth  of  12  inches  over  the 
whole  soil  covered  by  the  crop.  This  is  the  requirement 
of  an  average  crop  upon  a  moderately  well-cultivated  soil. 
If  tliQ  crop  is  stimulated  to  extraordinary  growth  by  large 
applications  of  manure  or  other  fertilizers,  a  still  greater 
supply  of  water  is  needed  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
crop.  Thus  the  yield  of  a  crop  depends  in  certain  eases 
entirely  upon  the  amount  of  water  supplied,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  bears  an  exact  ratio  with  it. 

The  summer  rainfall  in  our  climate  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
adequate  to  the  requirements  of  what  would  be  a  maxi- 
mum crop,  consistent  with  the  possibilities  of  the  soil. 
Our  intense  heats  cause  a  large  proportion  of  the  rain-fall 
to  be  evaporated  directly  from  the  soil.  Our  copious 
summer  rains  are  seldom  wholly  retained  by  the  soil,  but 
frequently  in  large  part  escape  into  streams  and  water- 


10  IRRIGATION-. 

courses,  and  arc  lost  to  vegetation.  Our  fall,  winter,  and 
early  sprin^  rains  come  at  times  when  the  crops  derive 
tlie  least  benefit,  or  none  at  all,  from  them.  The  amount 
,)f  rain-fall  that  thus  escapes  paying  tribute  to  our  crops 
is  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  it.  To  estimate  it  at 
tliree-fourtlis  of  the  whole  would  not  be  unreasonable. 
There  would  then  be  left  less  than  12  inches  of  water  to 
meet  the  necessities  of  the  growing  crops.  That  this 
sufficiently  accounts  for  the  low  average  of  our  yearly  pro- 
duction of  grass  and  grain  is  not  at  all  improbable.  The 
supply  of  water  then  becomes  the  measure  of  the  fertility 
of  our  soil,  and  our  climate,  subject  to  torrid  drouths  in 
the  midst  of  the  growing  season,  is  the  obstacle  to  success 
which  meets  the  farmer  rather  than  the  impoverished  soil 
—a  condition,  indeed  mainly  due  to  a  poverty  of  water. 

To  renu)ve  this  obstacle  to  successful  cultivation,  it  is 
only  necessary  that  a  system  of  irrigation  be  adopted. 
An  adequate  supply  of  water,  ready  for  use  in  case  of 
emergency,  will  render  the  farmer,  the  gardener,  or  the 
fruit  grower,  to  a  very  large  extent,  independent  of  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  season,  and  secure,  beyond  accident, 
a  full  reward  for  his  labor.  If  with  a  system  of  irriga- 
tion a  proper  system  of  drainage  be  also  adopted,  the  cul- 
tivator of  the  soil  will  have  removed  two  adverse  influ- 
ences, against  which  he  is  now  called  upon  so  frequently, 
and  so  ineffectually,  to  strive.  To  irrigate  economically, 
and  successfully,  however,  is  a  business  which  requires  a 
large  amount  of  technical  knowledge  and  skill,  and  the 
expenditure  of  a  considerable  amount  of  capital  either  in 
money  or  labor.  Irrigation  belongs,  in  fact,  to  a  highly 
advanced  condition  of  agriculture,  and  can  only  be  ap- 
plied to  lands  of  high  value  or  capacity  in  the  hands  of 
intelligent  owners. 

But  it  is  clearly  manifest  at  the  present  time,  if  it  never 
Avas  before,  that  the  farmer,  or  other  cultivator  of  the  soil, 
who  would  succeed  in  keeping  abreast  of  our  progressive 


AMOUNT    OV   WATER    T^ED    BY    PLANTS.  11 

age  must  labor  more  intelligently,  must  greatly  increase 
the  productive  capacity  and  value  of  his  land,  and  must 
employ  a  larger  amount  of  capital  in  money,  or  its  equiva- 
lent in  labor  and  skill,  than  he  has  hitherto  done.  One 
of  the  msans  placed  in  his  hands,  by  those  circumstances 
which  ever  favor  the  enterprising  and  industrious  man, 
to  employ  all  these,  is  to  make  use  of  the  supply  of  water, 
from  springs,  wells,  and  streams,  which  may  be  available 
to  nourish  and  increase  his  crops  when  rain  is  withheld, 
and  their  growth  is  consequently  arrested. 


CHAPTER    II. 

IMPORTANCE   OF   AN   ADEQUATE    SUPPLY    OF  WATER. 

Water  is  not  only  necessary  for  vegetable  growth,  but 
it  is  well  established  that  to  a  great  extent  the  amount 
of  growth  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  water  supplied 
to  a  crop.  Years  ago,  when  a  large  portion  of  the  coun- 
try was  covered  with  forests,  and  when  the  cleared  soil 
was  well  filled  with  the  deca3ring  remains  of  the  removed 
woods,  the  produce  of  the  newly  cleared  fields  was  more 
than  double  that  of  to  day.  Then  the  soil  was  absorbent 
of  water,  it  was  not  subjected  to  the  influence  of  sweep- 
ing winds;  the  rain-fall  was  held  in  the  soil  for  a  longer 
time,  and  did  not  pass  off  in  immediate  freshets  and 
floods.  Consequently  the  crops  had  a  constant  supply  of 
water,  and  their  yield  was  a  maximum  one.  As  a  coin- 
cidence might  be  cited  the  comparatively  large  average 
yield  of  the  soil,  in  the  so-called  moist  climate  of  England 
and  Ireland.  "  So-called  moist,"  because,  as  it  happens, 
the  annual  rain-fall  in  our  so-called  dry  climate,  is  near- 
ly, if  not  quite,  double  that  of  Great  liritain.  Here  the 
rain-fall  is  over  40  inches  in  the  year,  there  it  is  not  much 
over  20  inches.     But  the  English  climate  is  insular,  and 


IS  lltRlGATlOJSr. 

is  influenced  by  the  moist  winds  of  the  ocean,  and  the 
fogs  from  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  evaporation  from  the 
soil  is  therefore  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  light 
rain-fall,  more  constant  than  with  us,  and  consisting  of 
frequent  light  showers,  is  ample  for  the  needs  of  vegeta- 
tion. On  the  contrary  our  climate  is  continental  and 
subject  to  the  influence  of  dry  winds,  and  a  higher 
temperature,  and  our  heavier  but  more  inconstant  rain- 
fall is  found  inadequate.  Hence  our  low  average  of  those 
crops  which  need  a  large  quantity  of  water  for  their  max- 
imum growth,  and  hence  the  ineffective  efforts  of  Ameri- 
can farmers  to  reach  the  high  averages  of  the  crops  grown 
in  England. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  showing  this  rela- 
tion between  the  weight  of  grain  produced  and  the  quan- 
tity of  water  consumed  by  the  plants,  whether  evaporated 
through  their  leaves,  or  appropriated  by  their  tissues, 
were  made  in  1874,  at  the  Agricultural  Observatory  of 
Montsouris,  France.  The  grain  grown  was  wheat.  Sev- 
eral kinds  of  soils  and  fertilizers  were  used,  which  gave 
very  varying  results,  but  the  variety  in  the  amounts  of  the 
product  was  remarkably  illustrative  of  the  facts  proved. 
The  means  adopted  for  determining  the  results  were  the 
most  complete,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  entire 
accuracy  of  the  conclusions  reached.  The  results  are 
given  in  the  following  table  : 

L — Table  showing  the  total  quaydity  of  water  evaporated  and  the  grain  pro- 
duced ;  also  the  quantiti/  of  water  consumed  for  one  pound  of  grai7i  iw 
nine  experiments  with  various  fertilizers. 

Pounds  of  water       Pounds  of  grain  Pounds  of  water 

evaim-afed.              jn-odnced.  for  one  of  grain. 

No.   1 1,616                      0.6  2,693 

"     2 1,.512                      0.8  1,890 

"     3 4,703                      2.4  1,960 

"     4 2,203                      2.7  816 

"     5 3,362                      8.9  1,125 

"     6 4,827                      3.1  1,396 

♦'      7 4,751                       5.5  864 

"     8 7,417                      9.3  806 

•'     9 7,703                    10,6  737 


INSUFFICIENCY    OF    RAINFALL.  13 

The  production  of  straw  was  very  nearly  double  that  of 
grain  in  every  case,  and  the  increase  constant  and  regular. 

In  the  very  exhaustive  experiments  which  have  been 
made  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Rothamstead,  England,  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  water  consumed  by  a  growing 
crop  of  wheat,  it  was  very  clearly  shown,  that  for  every 
pound  of  dry  matter  produced,  200  pounds  of  water  was 
evaporated,  and  that  for  every  pound  of  mineral  matter 
assimilated  by  the  crop,  2,000  pounds  of  water  passed 
through  the  plant.  Mr.  Lawes  therefore  declared,  that 
for  a  maximum  crop  of  wheat,  in  England,  the  supply 
of  rain  water  was  totally  inadequate.  Leguminous  plants, 
(beans,  clover,  etc.,)  required  a  still  more  abundant  sup- 
ply of  water  than  wheat,  and  of  course  the  more  luxuri- 
ant the  growth,  the  greater  the  expenditure  of  water. 
Comparing  the  results  of  Mr.  Lawes  investigations  with 
those  at  Montsouris,  a  striking  equality  is  found.  In  the 
maximum  crop  there  grown,  727  lbs.  of  water  were  evap- 
orated for  one  pound  of  grain  and  two  of  straw,  giving 
242  pounds  of  water  for  one  pound  of  total  produce. 
If,  as  is  probably  the  case,  the  weight  of  the  roots  was 
included  in  Mr.  Lawes  estimate,  as  it  was  not  in  the 
other,  the  approach  to  equality  between  the  two  results 
would  be  very  close  indeed.  One  therefore  corroborates 
the  other. 

These  results  show,  in  a  very  remarkable  manner,  the 
absolute  necessity  for  an  adequate  supply  of  water  for  the 
successful  prosecution  of  an  advanced  agriculture.  Tlie 
plants  grown  in  these  experiments  were  supphed  with 
water  at  libitum.  Those  which  grew  luxuriantly  under 
the  effect  of  the  most  active  and  valuable  manure,  viz. 
a  mixture  of  phosphate  of  ammonia,  nitrate  of  potash, 
and  chloride  of  sodium — a  very  complete  fertilizer — are 
seen  to  have  consumed  a  very  large  quantity  of  water, 
and  nearly  five  times  as  much  as  those  which  grew  most 
feebly. 


14  IRRIGATION. 

The  measure  of  the  water  consumed  may  thus  he  con- 
sidered as  the  tneasicre  of  the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  fur- 
nish itsproduct,  for  it  is  clear  tliat  if  this  large  quantity 
of  water  was  not  supplied,  the  excessive  product  of  grain 
could  not  have  been  grown.  If  this  conclusion  be  cor- 
rect, we  have  at  once  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
hitherto  strange  fact  that  our  best  farmers,  in  no  way 
less  skillful  or  less  enterprising,  and  with  no  less  fertile 
soil,  than  the  English  farmers,  can  very  rarely  reach,  and 
still  more  rarely  surpass  a  crop  of  40  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre,  while  in  England  64  and  66  bushels  are  com- 
mon with  the  best  farmers.  Taking  the  minimum  quan- 
tity of  water,  (viz.  727  lbs.)  evaporated  for  a  pound  of 
grain,  a  harvest  of  40  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  would 
consume,  or  pass  through  its  leaves,  an  amount  equal  to 
6  inches  in  depth,  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground. 
But  this  is  not  a  complete  statement,  for  the  average  re- 
sult of  a  large  number  of  experiments  made  in  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  these  results  as  well,  prove  that  a  crop  of 
w^heat  of  40  bushels  per  acre,  may  consume,  or  evapor- 
ate, through  its  leaves,  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  a  rain- 
fall of  over  17  inches  ;  for  the  less  vigorous  the  growth, 
the  greater  is  the  proportionate  consumption  of  water, 
and  the  yield  which  consumed  737  lbs.  of  water  for  one 
of  grain,  was  greatly  in  excess  of  40  bushels  per  acre.  If 
to  this  consumption  of  water  is  added  the  excessive 
evaporation  from  the  soil,  consequent,  upon  the  hot  suns 
and  dry  winds  of  our  growing  season,  as  Avell  as  the  loss 
through  the  passage  of  water  over  tb.e  frozen  surface  of 
the  soil,  during  our  long  winters,  the  totally  inadequate 
supply  of  water,  for  a  maximum  crop,  under  our  now 
usual  conditions,  is  very  evident.  It  is  also  evident,  that 
where  crops  can  be  grown  by  irrigation,  and  an  ample 
supply  of  water  provided,  there  the  success  of  the  farmer 
will  be  assured,  and  there  the  risks  from  untimely  drouths 
may  be  wholly  avoided.     It  is  also  evident  that  every- 


RAINFALL    IN    CALIFORNIA.  15 

where  i'h.a.t  the  conditions  permit  of  it,  our  grass  crops 
may,  by  means  of  irrigation,  be  made  equal  to  those  of 
the  most  favored  climates,  and  that  the  productiveness 
of  our  meadows  may  be  increased  greatly  beyond  that 
which  is  now  jsossible  by  the  most  skillful  culture. 

But  a  large  portion  of  our  territory  is  practically  rain- 
less and  arid.  The  configuration  of  the  surface  is  such, 
that  the  passage  of  rain  clouds  is  arrested  by  high  moun- 
tains, and  the  precipitation  is  confined  to  very  small  and 
elevated  areas.  This  is  the  case  with  nearly  the  whole 
of  our  territory  west  of  the  100th  meridian  of  longitude, 
or  a  line  drawn  through  the  western  part  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  from  north  to  south.  In  this  extensive  district 
are  found  some  of  the  richest  soils  in  the  world,  which 
will  yield,  with  irrigation,  a  yearly  average  of  30  to  40 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre.  During  the  growing  season 
the  rain-fall  is  the  least ;  the  greatest  amount  taking 
place  in  the  winter  months  in  the  form  of  snow. 

The  amount  of  the  rain-fall  decreases  from  the  100th 
meridian,  where  it  is  less  than  20  inches  in  the  year,  to 
7  to  15  inches  further  west,  and  increases  as  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  reached,  where  it  measures  9'  |^  inches  in  Southern 
California  up  to  ahout  23  inches  at  San  Francisco.  But 
the  fall  is  very  irregular,  depending  greatly  upon  local 
causes.  This  is  shown  by  the  following  facts,  derived 
from  scientific  observaticms  at  various  points  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  the  contiguity  of  the  coast  range  of  moun- 
tains with  that  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  causes  many  very 
surprising  differences  in  the  amount  of  the  rain-fall. 
Thus  while  at  San  Francisco  the  fall  averaged  23  inches 
yearly  during  19  years,  14  miles  distant  at  Pillarcito's 
Dam  it  averaged  during  nine  years,  58  inches  yearly. 
This  irregularity  is  intensified  by  the  dry  winds  wliich 
absorl)  moisture  to  an  extraordinary  degree  ;  a  north  wind, 
hot  and  dry,  which  occasionally  blows  in  the  San  Joaquin 
and  other  vallies,  has  evaporated  one  inch  of  water  in  a  day. 


16  IRRIGATION. 

Tlie  following  table  gives  the  range  at  the  various 
localities  for  the  period  mentioned,  viz. : 

Locality.  Period.  Rain-fall. 

Fort  Reading 3  years  15.9  to  37.4  inches. 

Sacramento 17     "  11-3  to  27.5  " 

Millerton 6    "  9.7  to  49.3  " 

Stockton 3     "  11.6  to  20.3  « 

FortTejou 5    "  9.8  to  34.2  " 

Monterev 5"  8.2  to  21.6  " 

SanDiego 12    "  6.9  to  13.4  " 

Benicia 12    "  11.8  to  20.0  " 

During  these  years  in  which  the  rain-fall  marked  the 
lowest  range,  the  distress  amongst  farmers  was  extreme. 
South  of  Monterey,  in  the  three  years  from  1868  to  1871, 
neither  grass  nor  grain  grew.  Hundred  of  farms  were 
abandoned,  and  stock  men  drove  their  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep  up  into  the  mountains  for  food  and  water.  In  the 
Spring  of  1870  the  great  Santa  Clara  valley  was  entirely- 
destitute  of  grass,  and  the  plains  of  Los  Angeles,  com- 
prising over  a  million  acres  of  land,  were  barren  to  the 
borders  of  the  streams.  Elsewhere  the  same  effects 
were  visible,  and  over  the  entire  State  hundreds  of  thous- 
ands of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  starved  to  death.  The 
estimate  of  the  farmers,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  great 
valley  of  California  is,  that  but  two  crops  can  be  secured 
in  five  years,  without  irrigation,  but  in  the  extreme  south 
this  is  to  be  still  further  reduced.  In  1850  only  7  inches 
of  rain  fell  at  San  Francisco. 

Further  east,  in  Nevada,  Utah  and  Colorado,  where 
the  soil  is  rich  and  arable,  no  dependence  can  be  placed 
upon  the  rain-fall,  which  does  not  even  serve  to  start  the 
growth  of  the  crops.  A  great  depth  of  snow,  however, 
falls  upon  the  mountains,  which  in  melting  fills  the  rivers 
and  can  be  made  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  during  the 
growing  season.  Through  the  whole  of  this  western  ter- 
ritory the  total  supply  of  water  is  sufiicient  to  ensure 
good  crops  yearly,  if  it  can  only  be  secured  and  utilized. 
The  first  difficulty  lies  in  arresting  its  escape,  and  the 


VALUE  OF  THE  GRASS  CROP.  17 

second  in  distributing  it  where  it  is  needed,  in  an  econom- 
ical manner. 

Thegreat  valley  of  California  includes  an  area  of  57,200 
square  miles,  which  is  equal  to  that  of  Illinois  or  Michi- 
gan. The  area  of  the  lesser  valleys  is  equal  to  18,750 
square  miles,  or  12,000,000  acres,  susceptible  of  irrigation. 
For  every  one  of  these  acres  capable  of  irrigation,  there 
are  three  which  serve  as  a  water  shed,  thus,  as  it  were, 
quadrupling  the  rain-fall  of  the  valleys,  if  the  water  shed 
of  the  hills  can  be  utilized. 

The  area  of  land  that  may  be  brought  under  irrigation 
in  other  parts  of  the  comparatively  rainless  district,  and 
the  area  of  water  shed,  has  about  the  same  relative  pro- 
portion, but  are  of  far  greater  extent.  Altogether,  the 
increase  of  wealth  that  must  accrue  from  the  reclamation 
of  these  vast  fertile  tracts,  which  want  only  water  to 
cover  them  with  verdure,  is  beyond  computation.  But 
this  increase  of  wealth,  great  as  it  would  be,  cannot  fail 
to  be  exceeded  by  that  which  would  result  from  the  gen- 
eral application  of  irrigation  in  those  parts  of  the  country 
where  only  partial  watering  is  needed;  and  the  prevention 
of  losses  by  drouth,  and  the  ravages  of  destructive  insects 
to  which  moisture  is  fatal,  which  every  year,  in  one  por- 
tion or  another  of  the  country,  reduce  farmers  profits,  or 
cause  them  to  disappear  entirely.  As  an  example  the 
single  case  of  the  grass  crop  may  be  considered. 

The  value  of  the  grass  crop  of  the  United  States,  in- 
cluding hay  and  the  products  of  pasture,  is  greater  than 
the  combined  A'alue  of  all  other  crops.  This  statement 
will  doubtles  be  a  surprise  to  many,  nevertheless  it  may 
be  substantiated  by  the  following  figures. 

The  total  hay  crop  of  1870  was  27,310,048  tons,  the 
average  value  of  this  at  a  moderate  estimate  would  not 
be  less  than  $10  per  ton,  or  over  273,000,000  dollars.  The 
total  dairy  products,  which  should  be  credited  to  past- 
ure, were  estimated,  in  1870,  as  1,000,000,000  lbs,  of 


18  IRRIGATION. 

butter,  100,000,000  lbs.  of  cheese,  and  400,000,000  gal- 
lons of  milk  sold  or  used.  The  total  value  of  these  is  not 
less  than  400,000,000  dollars.  Then  there  should  be 
credited  to  the  grass  crop,  in  large  part,  the  value  of  the 
■wool  and  lambs  produced,  or  at  least  100,000,000  dollars; 
also  one  half  at  least  of  the  value  of  the  yearly  increase 
of  live  stock,  which  is  supported  on  grass  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and  this  would  reach  a  sum  of  200,000,- 
000  dollars.  To  place  these  in  tabular  form  would  further 
impress  the  importance  of  the  grass  crop  upon  the  mind 
of  a  reader  ;  tliis  may  be  done  as  follows  : 

Yearly  value  of  the  hay  crop $273,000,000 

"  '•     of  dairy  products,  produced  from  grass .. .  400,000,000 

"  "    of  lambs  and  wool,  due  to  pasturage 100,000,000 

"  "of  increase  of  other  live  stock 200,000,000 

Total  annual  value  of  the  grass  crop $973,000,000 

This  vast  amount  is  in  excess  of  the  value  of  all  the 
rest  of  our  farm  products,  in  which  may  be  included  cot- 
ton, corn,  wheat,  and  other  grains. 

When  we  consider  that  by  a  complete  system  of  irrigat- 
ing our  grass  lands  alone,  the  crop  could  easily  be  doubled 
in  value,  the  immense  importance  of  the  subject  to  the 
agricultural  interest  of  the  country  is  at  once  seen.  There 
are,  comparatively,  few  cases  in  which  some  system  of 
irrigation,  more  or  less  complete,  could  not  be  applied  at 
least  to  grass  lands,  or  to  now  useless  lands  that  could 
be  turned  into  luxuriant  meadows. 

But  there  is  still  another  view  of  this  matter  which 
ought  to  be  considered.  It  is  not  only  true  that  water  is 
needed  to  supply  the  requirements  of  plants,  but  when 
used  in  irrigation,  it  brings  within  reach  of  the  plants  a 
largely  increased  amount  of  nutriment. 

"Water  is  the  universal  solvent.  Now-ater  in  its  natural 
condition  is  pure.  The  water  of  springs  and  streams 
holds  in  solution  or  suspension  a  quantity  of  mineral  and 
gaseous  matters,  that  possess  high  fertilizing  value.    The 


MINERAL    MATTER    CONTAINED    IX    WATER.  19 

rain  water  washes  the  soil,  and  wliotlicr  it  flows  over  its 
surface  or  percolates  through  it  to  the  subsoil,  it  takes  up 
in  its  course  a  portion  of  tlie  soluble  matters  which  it 
meets.  Thus  the  water  of  the  earth  contains  lime,  mag- 
nesia, soda,  potash,  iron,  sulphur,  silica,  ammonia,  car- 
bonic acid,  nitric  acid  and  oxygen,  in  solution.  Bagides 
this,  many  solid  substances  are  held  mechanically  and  in 
suspension,  and  are  deposited  whenever  the  flow  is  arrest- 
ed and  the  water  becomes  still. 

In  Professor  Geo.  H.  Cook's  valuable  work  on  the  Ge- 
ology of  New  Jersey,  the  following  examples   are  given  : 

Analysis  of  water  of  the  Delaware  river,  made  by  Henry  Wurtz,  N.  J.  State 

Chemist. 

Grains. 

Whole  solid  matter  contained  in  a  gallon 3.97 

Consisting  of  Carbonate  of  lime 1.30 

"  "  Carbonate  of  magnesia 0.89 

"  *'  Carbonate  of  potash 0.17 

"  "  Chloride  of  sodium 0.11 

"  "  Chloride  of  potassium 0.01 

"  "  Sulphate  of  lime 0.19 

"  "  Phosphate  of   lime 0.14 

•'  "  Silica 0.50 

"  "  Sesqui-oxide  of  iron 0.03 

"  "  Organic  matter  containing  ammonia 0.63 

The  water  of  the  Delaware  is  considered  as  exception- 
ally free  from  impurities.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the 
composition  of  its  impurities  in  connection  with  the 
practically  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  flats  of  this  river, 
which  are  annually  overflowed  and  thereby  enriched. 

A  comparison  of  the  solid  matters  contained  in  100,000 
parts  of  the  waters  of  several  of  our  rivers  is  here  given, 
as  follows,  viz. : 

Rivers FOssaic. 

Solid  contents 12.75 

Inorganic 7.85 

Organic 4.90 

Numerous  other  examples  might  be  given  were  they 
needed  ;   it  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  to  notice 


/Schuylkill. 

Croton. 

Ifudion. 

9.41 

18.71 

18.48 

7.29 

11.33 

14.52 

2.12 

7.39 

3.96 

20  IRRIGATION. 

that  these  examples  are  taken  from  streams,  the  waters  of 
Avhich  were  carefully  examined,  with  a  view  to  their  value 
and  use  for  domestic  supply  of  various  neiglvboring  cities; 
and  if  these  waters,  selected  for  their  purity,  contain  so 
much  foreign  matter,  how  much  must  be  contained  in 
those  turbid  streams,  the  waters  of  which  are  not  only 
higlily  charged  with  soluble  matter,  but  carry  in  suspen- 
sion solid  matter  of  which  vast  banks  are  sometimes  de- 
posited in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  or  months. 

The  value  of  all  the  water  which  now  passes  away  useless- 
ly, but  which  might  be  arrested  and  made  to  deposit  on  the 
soil,  or  convey  to  the  roots  of  crops,  its  burden  of  fertiliz- 
ing matter,  if  it  were  made  useful  in  irrigation,  is  more 
than  can  be  readily  calculated.  An  estimate  made  by 
Herve  Mangon  in  his  work  entitled  Experiences  sur 
Vemploi  des  eaux  dans  les  irrigations,  of  the  yearly  value 
of  tlie  solid  matter  conveyed  into  the  ocean  by  the  river 
Seine,  may  be  cited.  He  says:  "each  200,000  cubic 
meters  of  water  employed  in  irrigation,  will  produce  a 
quantity  of  alimentary  substances  equal  to  one  average 
butcher's  beef.  Then  the  waters  of  the  Seine  that  are 
lost  from  the  services  of  irrigation  carry  into  the  sea  the 
equivalent  of  one  fat  ox  every  two  minutes,  or  720  every 
twenty  four  hours,  or  262,800  in  the  year."  As  compar- 
ed with  American  rivers  the  Seine  is  a  small  stream;  what 
then  might  be  the  value  of  the  Missouri,  or  the  Mississip- 
pi, with  its  affluents,  or  any  one  or  all  of  our  other  rivers 
and  streams,  great  and  small,  that  now  pay  no  tribute  to 
us  in  this  direction  in  any  way  whatever. 


LANDS  THAT  MAT  BE   IRRIGATED.  21 

CHAPTER      III. 

THE    AMOUNT    OF    WATER   NEEDED    FOR   IRRIGATION. 

There  are  but  few  fields  or  gardens  ^o  situated  that 
water  may  not  be  applied  to  them  in  one  or  more  of  the 
methods  which  have  been  at  one  time  or  another,  or  may 
be,  adopted  to  irrigate  the  soil.  The  only  prerequisites 
are,  the  supply  of  water  and  the  power  to  bring  it  into 
such  a  position  that  it  can  be  spread  over  the  land. 
"Where,  however,  the  cost  of  procuring  and  applying 
water  will  be  greater  than  the  profit  to  be  derived  from 
its  use,  it  may  be  concluded  that  there  irrigation  is  im- 
possible. There  are  some  lands  situated  so  far  above  the 
supply,  that  the  cost  of  raising  the  water  and  of  providing 
reservoirs  to  receive  and  hold  it  until  it  could  be  distrib- 
uted, would  be  greater  than  the  value  of  any  benefits 
likely  to  accrue  from  its  use.  There  are  others  so  low 
that  to  irrigate  them,  without  at  the  same  time  provid- 
ing for  a  perfect  system  of  sub-soil  drainage,  would  be  to 
turn  them  into  marshes  and  ruin  them  for  agricultural 
purposes.  In  these  cases,  if  the  cost  of  drainage  should 
exceed  the  value  of  the  benefits  received  from  the  land, 
it  would  manifestly  be  impossible  to  irrigate  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  these  hindrances  do  not 
exist,  there  are  very  few  physical  features  of  the  land 
that  could  stand  in  the  way  of  irrigating  it.  Level  lands, 
or  lands  level  in  one  direction  with  a  slope  in  another; 
lands  sloping  in  every  direction  ;  hill  sides  either  of  mod- 
erate slope  or  such  abrupt  slope  that  terraces  must  be 
made  to  retain  the  soil  ;  all  these  may  be  prepared  by 
simple  methods  of  engineeriug  to  receive  any  supply  of 
water  that  can  be  economically  brought  to  them.  Equally 
those  lands  which  haj)pen  to  lie  beneath  the  level  of  a 
stream  or  tidal  river  ;  a  marsh,  submerged  wholly  or  par- 


22  IRRIGATION. 

tially  at  certain  seasons,  or  land  in  similar  situations,  but 
not  overflowed,  may  frequently  be  brought  under  recla- 
mation and  made  subject  to  drainage  and  irrigation  with 
great  profit. 

There  are  also  numerous  tracts  of  lands  along  the  bor- 
ders of  many  rivers  and  streams  that  have  been  washed 
and  injured  by  freshets  so  as  to  be  in  their  present  con- 
dition worthless  for  cultivation,  which  at  a  small  outlay 
may  be  covered  with  new  soil  of  a  most  fertile  charac- 
ter, and  again  rendered  useful  and  profitable  by  the  use 
of  appropriate  methods  of  irrigation.  Besides  these, 
there  are  extensive  tracts  of  land  at  the  mouths  of  tidal 
streams  or  estuaries,  or  at  the  confluences  of  large  rivers, 
which  are  always  under  water  or  exist  as  mud  banks, 
which  may  be  reclaimed  by  judicious  engineering,  and 
converted  in  a  few  years  into  agricultural  land  of  the  rich- 
est quality.  All  these  processes  belong  to  the  art  of  irri- 
gation, and  the  cases  in  which  one  or  another  of  them  are 
impossible  of  application  are  very  rare  indeed. 

The  su})ply  of  water  is  a  more  serious  consideration 
than  the  shape  or  configuration  of  the  land.  Where  this 
is  not  naturally  available  no  art  of  the  engineer  can  pro- 
vide it.  The  only  safe  dependence  is  upon  streams  or 
springs,  and  reservoirs  in  which  the  rain-fall  of  winter 
and  spring  may  be  gathered  and  stored.  Wells  can  only 
be  depended  upon  for  such  a  small  supply  as  would  serve 
to  irrigate  a  garden  or  small  market  farm,  where  the  large 
value  of  the  crops  would  admit  of  the  cost  of  raising 
water  for  a  lengthened  season  and  storing  it  in  reservoirs 
for  use  in  emergencies.  The  idea  that  artesian  wells  may 
be  made  a  source  of  supply  for  completely  irrigating  large 
tracts  of  land,  if  ever  held  by  any  over-sanguine  persons, 
must  be  abandoned.  For  partial  irrigation  they  may  be 
made  available,  but  the  quantity  of  water  needed  for  the 
irrigation  of  a  few  acres  of  land  only,  in  localities  where 
there  is  no  summer  rain-fall,  as  upon  our  Western  plains, 


CORRECT   ESTIMATES    OP    WATER   NEEDED.  23 

is  far  beyond  the  capacity  of  any  artesian  well  to  supply, 
unless  it  be  one  of  extraordinary  volume. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  quantity  of  water  needed 
for  irrigation  should  be  accurately  estimated.  A  mistake 
in  an  estimate  may  lead  to  the  construction  of  inadequate 
works,  and  the  useless  expenditure  of  much  money. 
Estimates  generally  err  upon  the  side  of  insufficiency 
rather  than  otherwise,  and  much  error  has  been  spread 
abroad  by  persons  and  journals  having  considerable  in- 
fluence. Not  long  ago  the  "Scientific  American"  edi- 
torially announced  that  one  artesian  well  would  supply  a 
farm  of  640  acres  upon  the  plains  with  water  for  irriga- 
tion, and  would  also  form  a  nucleus  for  many  large  stock 
farms. "  The  late  Horace  Greeley,  who,  although  an  en- 
thusiast upon  this  subject,  was  more  nearly  correct, 
thought  one  artesian  well  would  serve  to  irrigate  a  quarter 
section  of  land,  or  160  acres.  The  wildly  excessive  esti- 
mates of  the  value  of  a  certain  amount  of  Avater  might 
be  easily  disproved  by  the  careful  use  of  a  few  figures, 
and  a  little  common  sense.  For  instance,  let  any  person 
who  has  ever  watered  a  garden  plot  and  who  knows  the 
effect  of  one  inch  in  depth  of  water  upon  a  dry  soil,  con- 
sider the  following  facts,  and  then  apply  them  to  the  mat- 
ter in  question,  and  he  will  readily  see  the  absurdity  of 
the  estimates  above  referred  to. 

ist.  There  are  6,272,640  square  inches  in  an  acre. 

2d.  One  inch  of  water,  or  a  stream  one  inch  wide  and 
deep,  flowing  4  miles  an  hour,  will  equal  6,082,560  inches 
in  24  hours. 

3rd.  Therefore  1  inch  of  water  flowing  4  miles  an  hour, 
for  24  hours,  will  cover  one  acre  nearly  an  inch  deep. 

ith.  One  inch  of  water  per  week  equals  52  inches  per 
year,  or  more  than  the  yearly  rain-fall. 

5th.  Therefore  1  incli  of  water  should  serve  to  irrigate 
only  7  acres  once  a  week,  at  least  as  well  as  the  average 
rain-fall. 


24  iRRlGATIOIf. 

6th.  One  inch  of  water  flowing  4  miles  per  hour,  equal 
one  and  one-fifth  quart  per  second. 

7th.  One  quart  per  second,  flowing  for  24  hours,  will 
cover  an  acre  five-sixths  of  an  inch  deep. 

8ih.  One  inch  of  water  flowing  4  miles  an  hour  is  equal 
to  18  gallons  per  minute,  or  1,080  gallons  per  hour. 

9th.  An  artesian  well,  6  inches  in  diameter,  would  give 
a  stream  of  28  square  inches,  and  would  deliver  32  quarts 
per  second,  if  the  flow  were  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour. 

10th.  Such  a  well  would  furnish  an  inch  of  water  per 
day  for  28  acres,  or  an  inch  a  week  for  196  acres,  which 
would  be  a  very  insufiicient  quantity  to  irrigate  dry  open 
soils  in  places  where  the  climate  is  arid. 

11th.  The  cost  of  such  a  well  would  be  at  least  $5,000 
to  $10,000,  or  more  than  the  value  of  the  land  when 
irrigated. 

The  estimates  made  by  various  authorities  upon  irriga- 
tion, as  to  the  quantity  of  water  needed,  vary  consider- 
ably. As  a  rule,  the  quantity  of  water  used  by  some 
irrigators,  would  seem  to  be  extravagant.  Thus  we  find 
standard  authorities  upon  irrigation,  and  practical  irriga- 
tors, recommending  and  using  quantities  of  water  vary- 
ing from  one  to  four  quarts  per  second,  continuously 
flowing  for  24  hours  for  each  acre,  at  intervals  of  from 
five  to  fourteen  days.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the 
quantity  of  water  needed  to  moisten  the  soil  thoroughly, 
depends  on  certain  conditions,  which  are  very  variable. 

These  conditions  are  : 

First — the  nature  of  the  soil. 

Second — the  character  of  the  climate. 

Third — the  nature  of  the  subsoil. 

As  to  the  Soil. — Soils  differ  greatly  in  their  power  to 
absorb  and  retain  water.  Those  which  absorb  most  wa- 
ter retain  it  for  the  longest  time.  ,  The  power  of  absorp- 
tion is  due  to  the  surface  attraction  of  the  particles  of 
soil  for  water.     The  finer  the  particles  of   the  soil,  the 


POROSITY   OP  SOILS.  25 

greater  will  be  tlie  amount  of  water  absorbed,  because 
the  total  surface  of  the  particles  is  greater,  and  the  longer 
will  it  be  retained.  Thus  a  soil  consisting  of  coarse 
gravel  will  not  retain  water.  A  soil  of  pure  quartz  sand 
will  absorb  but  a  small  quantity,  and  will  soon  part  with 
it,  while  a  fine  alluvial  soil  will  absorb  a  large  amount, 
and  retain  it  a  long  time.  The  following  table  gives  the 
results  of  experiments  made  by  Schiibler,  to  determine 
the  capacities  of  different  soils  for  water  and  their  com- 
parative power  of  retaining  it.  In  these  experiments  the 
different  soils  were  thoroughly  wetted  with  water  up  to 
the  point  of  saturation,  and  the  increase  of  weight  noted; 
this  is  shown  in  the  first  column.  In  the  second  column 
are  given  the  quantities  of  water  which  evaporated  in 
four  hours,  the  samples  of  soil  being  spread  over  equal 
surfaces. 

Per  cent  of  water       Per  cent  of  water 

absorbed.  evaporated  in,  4  hours. 

Quartz  sand 25  88.4 

Limestone  sand 29  75.9 

Clay  soil  (40  per  cent  sand) 40  52.0 

Loam 51  45  7 

Common  arable  land 52  32. 0 

Heavy  clay  (20  per  cent  sand) 61  34.6 

Fine  Carbonate  of  lime 85  280 

Garden  soil 89  24  3 

Humus  (peat  or  decayed  vegetable  matter)  181  25 . 5 

Thus  the  greater  capacity  a  soil  possesses  for  the  ab- 
sorption of  water,  the  longer  it  retains  it.  It  is  obvious 
that  upon  this  depends  to  a  very  great  extent  the  quanti- 
ty of  water  that  will  be  needed  for  the  irrigation  of  any 
particular  soil.  Before  any  calculation,  as  to  the  needed 
supply,  can  be  made,  this  point  will  have  to  be  duly  con- 
sidered and  determined  by  the  irrigator  or  hydraulic  en- 
gineer. The  difference  arisin.ir  from  the  variations  in  the 
texture  and  composition  of  soils  has  been  closely  studied 
by  the  French  irrigators  and  engineers.  M.  Gasparin, 
who  stands  at  tlie  liead  of  the  numerous  writers  ui)on 
this  subject  in  that  country,  states  that  a  soil  which  con- 


20  IRUIGATION. 

tains  20  per  cent  of  sand  needs  to  be  irrigated  but  onc^ 
in  fifteen  days,  wliiie  under  similar  circumstances,  another 
soil  which  contains  80  per  cent  of  sand,  should  be  irrigat- 
ed once  in  five  days.  The  difference  would  be  still  greater 
between  soils  varying  still  more  in  their  character,  and 
less  with  those  wdiich  may  be  classed  between  these 
limits. 

As  to  the  Climate. — As  already  stated,  by  far  the 
largest  portion  of  the  water  which  falls  upon  the  earth's 
surface  is  removed  by  evaporation.  Observations  made 
at  Abbot's  Hill,  England,  by  Mr.  Dickinson,  during 
eight  years,  showed  that  90  per  cent  of  the  water  which 
fell  in  the  summer,  or  between  April  1st  and  October  1st, 
was  removed  by  evaporation,  and  only  10  per  cent  found 
its  way  into  the  drains  which  were  from  3  to  4  feet  deep. 
The  total  quantity  of  water  wdiich  fell  in  those  six  mouths 
was  equal  to  2,900,000  lbs.  per  acre,  and  of  this  more 
than  2,600,000  evaporated.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  this  occurred  in  a  moist,  cool  climate,  the  verdure 
of  the  meadows  in  which  is  hardly  equalled  in  any  other 
country,  unless  it  be  in  the  still  more  humid  Ireland, 
"the  emerald  isle."  In  England  showers  occur  almost 
daily,  and  the  winds  blowing  in  any  direction  from  the 
sea.  seldom  more  than  a  hundred  miles  distant,  and  gen- 
erally much  less  than  that,  are  charged  with  moisture  ; 
the  maximum  summer  temperature  rarely  reaches  80 
degrees,  and  also  from  the  more  northern  latitude,  the 
sun's  rays  fall  at  a  comparatively  low  angle;  if  then, 
under  these  conditions,  evaporation  carries  off  nine-tenths 
of  the  moisture  from  the  soil,  what  allowance  must  be 
made  in  our  climate,  where  the  atmosphere  is  drier,  the 
summer  temperature  20  degrees  higher,  and  where  the 
sun's  rays  fall  upon  the  surface  more  directly,  and  more 
ardently.  And  further,  if  a  large  allowance  must  be 
made  in  those  ])arts  of  the  country  where  the  rain-fall 
amounts  to  40  inches  and  over,  how  much  more  liberal 


French  unit  of  supply.  27 

must  the  allowance  be  for  those  districts  Avhere  the  rain- 
fall is  10,  15,  or  20  inches,  and  where  the  winds,  almost 
completely  deprived  of  moisture,  thirst  intensely  for  it  ? 
Here  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance,  and  one 
which  cannot  be  disregarded. 

It  will  be  evident  to  the  thoughtful  reader,  that  much 
will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  surface  of  the 
soil  maintained  by  the  cultivator.  The  amount  of  evap- 
oration can  be  largely  controlled  by  keeping  the  soil  in  a 
finely  divided  and  mellow  condition,  in  which  it  holds  its 
moisture  with  the  greatest  tenacity.  But  there  are  crops, 
such  as  wheat,  oats,  etc.,  which  do  not  admit  of  cultivation 
during  their  season  of  growth,  and  these  must  necessarily 
require  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  such  crops  as  com, 
or  roots,  which  can  be  cultivated. 

In  the  dry  and  hot  climate  of  Provence,  a  district  in 
the  south  of  France  where  irrigation  is  extensively  prac- 
ticed, it  has  been  found  necessary  to  use  for  each  water- 
ing of  the  soil  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  a  depth  of  3'  |^ 
to  4  inches  over  the  whole  surface  every  10  to  12  days, — 
the  usual  interval  between  the  waterings.  This  is  equal 
to  about  24  cubic  inches,  or  nearly  half  a  quart  per  second, 
continually  flowing  for  each  acre  of  surface.  Tliis  allow- 
ance, which  in  French  measures  is  equal  to  1  litre  per 
hectare,  or  61  cubic  inches  (=1  litre)  per  107,640  square 
feet  (^1  hectare),  is  the  basis  for  all  contracts  between 
the  government  which  controls  or  supervises  the  water 
supply,  and  the  owners  of  the  canals  (compagnies  con- 
cessionaires de  canaux),  and  between  the  latter  and  the 
farmers  who  buy  the  water  from  them.  It  is  the  official 
and  legal  unit  of  supply,  as  it  were,  and  is  a  valuable 
general  indication,  applical)le  to  any  locality  or  couutrv, 
where  water  may  be  used  to  irrigate  soils  of  (liffrrcnt 
characters  and  for  different  crops.  Tliis  may  be  taken 
as  the  mean  quantity,  to  be  decreased  or  enlarged  as  cir- 
cumstances may  necessitate  the  cliange. 


^  IRRIGATIOIT. 

As  examples  of  tlic  nature  of  these  varying  circum- 
stances, the  following  are  cited  :  M.  Herve  Magnon  (a 
frequently  quoted  autiiority  in  works  upon  irrigation,  and 
already  referred  to  here),  determines  the  limits  of  supply 
as  from  one  to  four  litres  per  second  per  hectare,  which 
is  equal  to  from  one  pint  to  two  quarts  per  acre,  per 
second,  continuously  flowing.  Gardens  and  market 
gardens  require  the  larger  extreme.  M.  Pareto,  another 
French  author,  in  his  work  upon  the  irrigation  and  drain- 
a"-e  of  lands,  {Irrigation  et  assainissement  des  terres), 
mentions  some  cases  in  which  a  quantity  equal  to  one 
quart  per  second  was  sufficient  to  effectively  irrigate  eight 
acres.  This  may  be  taken  as  the  extreme  minimum 
liniit  of  supply,  very  rarely  occurring,  and  altogether  ex- 
ceptional. 

The  Italian  canals,  which  irrigate  1,600,000  acres,  sup- 
ply 24,000  cubic  feet  per  second  for  this  area.  This  is 
equal  to  one  cubic  foot  (30  quarts)  for  66  acres,  or  a  flow 
of  26  cubic  inches  per  second  per  acre  ;  or  very  nearly 
one  quart  (which  is  57'|^  cubic  inches)  for  each  two  acres. 
In  that  country  the  rain-fall  equals  37  to  38  inches  per 
annum,  the  most  of  which  occurs  in  the  irrigating  season, 
when  there  are  on  the  average  71  rainy  days  in  the  six 
months  from  March  to  October.  There  the  summer  tem- 
perature is  from  70  to  90  degrees.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  climatic  conditions  of  Italy  closely  approach 
to  those  of  the  rainy  portion  of  the  United  States.  The 
mean  water-supply  may  therefore  be  taken  as  closely  ap- 
proximating the  quantity  required  in  this  country— viz. , 
one  pint  per  second,  constantly  flowing,  or  10,800  gallons, 
or  172'|  ,„  cubic  feet  every  24  hours  for  every  acre.  In  India, 
one  cubic  foot  per  second  is  made  to  serve  for  200  acres  of 
grain  crops.  In  some  parts  of  Spain  the  same  quantity  serves 
for  240  aeres;  in  others  the  same  quantity  is  spread  over 
1,000  acres,  and  the  legal  allowance  in  some  recent  Span- 
ish grants,  varies  from  70  to  260  acres  per  cubic  foot  per 


SUBSOIL    ABSORPTION.  29 

second.  Rice  culture  requires  a  sujsply  equal  to  one 
cubic  foot  per  second,  for  each  30  to  80  acres.  These 
examples  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  calculations,  needed  to 
meet  the  widely  different  circumstances  which  exist  in 
the  United  States,  where  possibly  the  variations  of  soil 
and  climate,  over  our  extensive  territory,  are  unparalleled 
in  any  other  single  country  in  the  world. 

As  to  the  Subsoil. — This  point  needs  very  little  elucida- 
tion. From  the  preceding  remarks,  the  effects  of  loose 
or  compact  subsoils  will  be  seen  to  exert  a  considerable 
influence  upon  the  requisite  water  supply.  There  are 
soils  which  rest  upon  open,  coarse,  gravelly  subsoils, 
which  may  be  compared  to  a  sieve.  Other  soils,  with  re- 
tentive clay  subsoils,  furnish  examples  exactly  the  reverse. 
These  are  unusual  cases,  but  as  they  may  occur,  they 
ought  to  be  considered.  It  does  not  seem  necessary  to 
discuss  this  point  further  than  to  call  attention  to  the 
importance  of  ascertaining  the  character  of  the  subsoil 
of  any  tract  which  it  is  proposed  to  irrigate,  as  a  serious 
element  in  calculating  the  needed  supply  of  water.  The 
minimum  direct  loss  through  absorption  by  the  subsoil 
should  not  be  estimated  at  less  than  15  per  cent  of  the 
supply,  and  a  much  larger  allowance  should  be  made 
when,  upon  examination,  the  subsoil  is  found  to  consist  of 
coarse  sand  or  gravel. 

When  we  consider  the  quantity  of  water  needed  for 
irrigation,  it  is  clearly  seen  that  springs  are  rarely  of  suf- 
ficient volume  to  be  of  material  value,  excepting  for 
meadows,  and  then  only  for  small  surfaces  or  partial 
watering.  Tliey  may  T)e  made,  however,  to  serve  an  im- 
portant purpose  in  such  cases  as  these  where  the  area  to 
be  irrigated  is  small.  Storage  reservoirs,  in  which  is 
collected  the  water  of  thr)se  temporary  courses,  which 
flow  only  when  the  rain-fall  is  Inrgest  and  tlie  amouTit  of 
evaporation  is  least,  may  bo  made  important  sources  of 
gupply.     It  is  by  means  of  these  that  a  large  portion  of 


30  IRRIGATION. 

the  irrigation  needed  to  make  the  dry  plains  of  India 
fruitful  "is  accomplished.  But  by  far  the  most  import- 
ant sources  of  water  for  irrii^ation  are  rivers  and  streams. 
In  these  there  is  an  aljundant  supply,  and  tlicre  is  gener- 
ally ample  provision  for  elevating  the  water,  by  means 
of  dams  with  canals  or  by  vv-ater  wheels,  to  the  highest 
portion  of  the  adjacent  land  which  is  to  be  irrigated. 

The  scope  for  the  utilization  of  rivers  and  small  streams 
in  irrigation  in  the  United  States  is  of  vast  extent,  and 
the  statement  which  lias  been  made  that  there  are  500,000 
homesteads  in  tiie  country  that  could  be  brought  under 
a  partial  or  complete  system  of  irrigation,  does  certainly 
not  overestimate  the  reality,  but  on  the  contrary  is  doubt- 
less  greatly  below  it.  It  is  for  every  cultivator  of  the 
soil  to  closely  scan  his  own  resources  in  this  respect, 
wisely  determining  to  turn  them  to  account  as  soon  as  he 
shall  have  discovered  their  existence  and  perceived  how 
to  employ  them.  The  cost  of  works  for  irrigation  will 
be  greatest  where  tlie  area  to  be  irrigated  is  the  smallest, 
as  for  instance  in  gardens  and  market  gardens  ;  it  will  be 
least  in  the  case  of  meadows,  where  the  distributing 
canals  are  permanent  in  character,  and  between  these  ex- 
tremes upon  aral)le  lands,  where  for  each  crop  the  surface 
must  be  disturbed,  and  furrows  for  spreading  the  water 
must  be  made  anew  at  each  plowing.  The  cost  will  also 
vary  greatly,  as  the  facilities  for  procuring  and  elevating 
the  water  may  differ.  But  it  may  be  accepted  as  beyond 
doubt  that  there  are  few  gardens,  market  farms,  orchards, 
or  meadows  that  micrht  not  be  brought  under  a  more  or 
less  systematic  irrigation,  and  few  localities  near  the 
borders  of  rivers  in  the  great  Western  plains,  or  other 
rainless  localities,  in  which  the  present  arid  desert  may 
not  be  redeemed  and  made  to  blossom  and  become  fruit- 
ful beneath  the  beneficient  influence  of  the  fertilizing 
waters  which  now  flow  uselessly  by  them, 


lEKIGATION    OF    GARDENS.  81 

CHAPTER    IV. 

IRRIGATION    OF    GARDENS.— THE    SUPPLY   OF   WATER. 

Gardens  and  market  farms,  by  reason  of  the  greater 
value  of  the  crops  raised  upon  them,  in  constant  succes- 
sion, will  permit  tlie  application  of  more  costly  metliods 
of  irrigation  tlian  any  otlier  cultivated  grounds,  and  from 
their  smaller  area  there  is  less  difficulty  in  procuring  an 
ample  supply  of  water.      Few  gardens  are  so  situated  that 
water  can  be  procured  from  a  stream  without  the  employ- 
ment of  a  water  wheel  or  other  motive  power,  a  force 
pump,  and  pipes  laid  underground,   and  a  reservoir  in 
which  water  may  be  stored  when  not  needed.     But  nearly 
every  one   may  be  supplied    from  a  well  by  the  use  of  a 
windmill.     A  windmill  of  the  smallest  size  made,  and  of 
the  best  construction  and  self-regulating,  costing  about 
$100,  is  able  to  raise  two  quarts  of  water  per  second  to  a 
hight  of  25  feet.     A  win  Imill  may  be  constructed  by  any 
fair  mechanic  at  a  cost  of  from  110  to  125,  which  will 
answer  every  purpose  of  those  manufactured  and  sold  at 
higher  prices,  excepting    that  of    regulating  themselves 
to  the  varying  forces  of  the  winds.      A  mill  of  this  char- 
acter maybe  fixed  in  a  frame  over  the  well,  and  the  arms, 
of  which  there  may  be  six,  eight,  or  more,  with  fans  fix- 
ed so  as  to  present  their  faces  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees 
to  the  wind,  are  kept  in  position  by  means  of  a  vertical 
vane  behind  them.      Another,  which  consists  of  six  arms 
mounto.l  upon  a  rotating  frame,  carries  cloth  sails.     This 
mill  requires  to  be   clianged  as  the  wind  changes,  and  a 
ladder  is  attached  to  the  frame  upon  which  it  is  mounted 
for  this  purpose.     The  frame  on  wliich  to  mount  it  may 
be  of  timber,  as  shown   in   the  engraving   (fig.  1),   or  it 
may  be  a   stone  or  brick  building  if  desired  for  a  sul)- 
stantial  machine  for  heavier  work.     The  power  is  con- , 


82 


IRRIGATION. 


strueti'd  in  the  shape  of  arms— sliorter  or  longer,  accord- 
iui;  to  the  power  needed — fixed  to  a  center- wheel  or  hub, 
Avhieh  is  mounted  and  keyed  on  to  an  axle.  Sails  are 
carried  on  tlicse  arms,  of  sail-cloth  or  heavy  sheeting,  of 

a  triangular  shape, 
as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving, which  are 
fastened   closely  to 
one  arm  and   by  a 
cord  in  the  corner, 
shown  at  a,  a  foot 
or  less  in  length,  to 
^^     I        ^j'^i^m,^,^*- — ^    another.    This  gives 
^piasir^'^-gaii^fe.^ — ^^^MT    ~^''  7    sufficient       inclina- 
I  ^   \Airfv^i  ^^^j-^  backward  to  the 

sails  to  gain  the  mo- 
tion required  with  a 
front  wind.  On  the 
axle  is  a  crank- 
wheel,  b,  which 
moves  the  rod  to  be 
connected  with  the 
pump,  or  it  may  be 
connected  by  means 
of  pulleys  and  bands 
to  get  an  upright 
rotary  motion,  or  a 
pair  of  bevel-wheels 
will  give  a  horizontal  rotary  movement.  A  frame,  c,  is 
carried  on  a  circular  table,  on  which  it  may  be  revolved 
80  as  to  cnal)le  the  sails  to  be  presented  fairly  to  the 
breeze  ;  a  box,  d,  at  the  rear  end  of  the  frame  is  weighted 
with  stone,  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  arms  and  sails. 
A  pin  passed  through  lioles  in  the  circular  table  retains 
the  frame  to  the  position  needed,  and  keeps  the  sails 
%  faced  to  the  wind. 


Fi^-  1- — WINDMILL   WITH   SAILS. 


CISTERNS    AND    TANKS. 


33 


A  mill  with  arms  six  feet  long  may  be  made  to  do  work 
equal  to  one-fourth  of  a  horse-power,  if  all  the  working 
parts  are  well  fitted  and  kept  well  lubricated,  as  all 
machinery  should  be.  When  out  of  use,  the  sails  are  un- 
tied and  removed,  or  they  may  be  furled  and  clewed  to 
the  arms  until  again  required. 

A  one-horse  railroad-power  would  also  serve  a  useful 
purpose  in  raising  water  from  wells  into  an  elevated  res- 
ervoir, where  it  could  be   stored  for  use.     For  small 


/  // 

Fig.  2. — SQUARE  TANK. 

gardens  the  water  from  the  roofs  of  buildings  may  be 
collected  in  tanks  or  cisterns  raised  a  few  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  ground. 

A  round  tank,  hooped  with  iron  bands,  12  feet  deep 
and  15  feet  in  diameter,  will  hold  over  15,000  gallons.  A 
square  tank  (fig.  2)  may  be  made  of  jointed  and  matched 
planks,  which  are  forced  closely  together  by  wedges,  act- 
ing upon  a  timber  frame  which  encloses  the  planks.    This 


lUKIGATION. 


is  tlic  clieupest  kiud  of  tank  that  can  be  made.  One  16 
foot  square  and  10  feet  deep  will  contain  nearly  20,000 
gallons.  Tanks  of  tliis  character  can  only  serve  for  small 
gardens,  or  to  store  water  which  is  pumped  at  night  for 
use  during  the  day  time.  Either  of  these  tanks,  if  filled 
during  the  night  (to  do  which  will  require  a  stream  from 
a  })ipo  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  constantly  run- 
ning), and  replenished  during  the  day,  will  furnish 
enough  water  to  give  more  than  one  inch  in  dejith  over 
an  acre  of  surface.  This  is  the  least  quantity  that  could 
be  depended  upon  in  a  dry  season  for  any  effective  pur- 
pose, and  would  need  repeating  after  an  interval  of  four  to 
seven  days,  so  that  the  maximum  effort  of  a  tank  of  this 
size,  with  a  well,  windmill  or  horse-power  attached,  would 
suffice  only  in  an  emergency  to  water  four  to  seven  acres 
of  land.  Where  the  ground  to  be  irrigated  is  of  larger 
extent,  the  tank  room  and  water  supply  must  be  enlarged, 
or  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  and  power  increased.  The 
cajjacity  of  the  pipe  increases  as  the  square  of  the  diame- 
ter, by  Avhich  is  meant  that  if  the  diameter  is  doubled 
the  capacity  is  quadrupled.  Thus  if  a  pipe  one  inch  in 
diameter  supplies  one  quart  per  second,  a  pipe  of  two 
inches  diameter  will  furnish  four  quarts  per  second  (or 
two  multiplied  by  two),  and  a  pipe  three  inches  diameter 
will  yield  nine  quarts  (or  three  multiplied  by  three),  per 
second.  At  the  same  time  the  power  must  be  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  elevated,  or  disap- 
pointment will  result.  In  estimating  power  a  large  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  loss.  A  horse  working  in  a  rail- 
way-power can  only  raise  an  equivalent  of  three-fourths 
of  his  weight ;  the  rest  disappears  in  friction;  and  when 
a  stream  of  water  is  forced  through  a  pipe  of  small  di- 
ameter for  a  considerable  distance,  the  loss  of  power  in 
friction  IS  very  large,  and  another  fourth  of  the  horse's 
effort  must  generally  be  allowed  to  compensate  for  it 
One  horse  may  be  expected  to  raise  180  quarts  one  foot 


MEASUREMENT    OF    STKEAMS.  35 

high  every  second,  or  6  quarts  to  a  hight  of  30  feet.  The 
small  size  windmills  are  about  one-sixth  of  one  horse- 
power. 

Where  streams  are  available,  the  supply  of  water  will 
be  found  most  ample  and  most  economical.  No  storage 
tanks  are  needed  in  which  the  water  must  remain  for  a 
time,  that  its  temperature  may  be  raised  nearly  to  that  of 
the  soil,  as  when  wells  are  used.  The  water  may  be 
taken  directly  from  the  stream  and  flowed  upon  the 
ground.  A  low  dam  of  two  feet  in  hight  may  be  con- 
structed of  planks  across  the  stream,  by  whicli  power  to 
run  a  small  undershot  wheel  may  be  secured.  Where 
there  is  facility  for  backing  the  water  to  a  greater  extent, 
or  of  procuring  a  greater  fall,  a  breast-wheel  may  be  used. 
A  dam  four  or  five  feet  high  will  be  sufficient  for  a  wheel 
of  this  kind,  if  the  stream  is  four  feet  wide  and  six  inches 
deep,  and  runs  with  a  velocity  of  two  miles  per  hour. 
Such  a  stream  with  this  fall  of  water  would  give  sufficient 
power  to  elevate  11  quarts  of  water  per  second  a  hight  of 
30  feet,  or  a  sufficient  supply  for  about  12  acres  of  ground, 
or  more  in  proportion  to  the  less  hight  that  the  water 
would  have  to  be  raised.  To  calculate  the  nominal 
horse-power  furnished  by  a  fall  of  water,  the  velocity  of 
the  stream  in  feet  per  minute,  the  hight  of  fall,  and  the 
seciional  area  (the  width  and  depth)  of  the  stream  in 
sf]uare  feet,  must  be  multiplied  together,  and  by  02' f,, 
and  divided  by  33,000. 

For  instance,  if  the  stream  is  found  to  be  5  feet  wide 
at  the  surface,  and  3  feet  at  tlie  bottom,  with  banks  evenly 
sloping  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom,  the  mean  diame- 
ter is  found  l)y  adding  the  surface  and  bottom  widths  to- 
getlierand  taking  half  the  sum.  In  this  case  the  mean 
widtli  will  bo  4  feet.  If  tlie  depth  in  tlie  middle  is  6 
inclif'S  or  half  a  foot,  this  mean  width  is  multijilied  by 
the  depth  and  tlie  ])roduct  is  the  sectional  area,  which  in 
this  cq-se  is  two  square  feet.     To  find  the  velocity  of  tliQ 


36  IBEIGATIOX. 

stream  a  thin  shaving  or  other  light  floating  substance  fs 
thrown  upon  the  surface,  and  the  exact  time  in  which  it 
moves  over  a  definite  distance,  say  10  rods  or  IGo  feet,  is 
carefully  noted  by  walking  along  the  bank  watch  in  hand. 
Let  this  time  be  supposed  to  be  one  minute.  Then  the 
sectional  area  of  the  stream  being  2  feet,  this  is  multi- 
plied by  165  and  the  product  330  is  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  of  water  passing  down  the  stream  in  one  minute. 
A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62'  |,  pounds,  therefore  330 
cubic  feet  weighs  20,625  lbs.  If  the  dam  is  4  feet  high  we 
have  20,625  lbs.  of  water  per  minute  falling  4  feet,  which 
is  equal  to  82,500  lbs.  per  minute  falling  one  foot.  This 
would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  exactly  balance  the  same 
weight  rising  the  same  hight.  The  whole  power  of  a  horse 
attached  to  suitable  machinery  is  equal  to  that  necessary 
to  raise  33,000  pounds  one  foot  high  in  a  minute.  The 
force  exerted  by  the  falling  of  82,500  pounds  in  a  minute 
is  equal  to  2' 1^  horse-power.  But  a  considerable  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  friction,  when  waterwheels  are 
used,  and  especially  where  tlfe  fall  is  so  small  as  here  sup- 
posed. It  would  not  be  safe  to  expect  to  gain  more  than 
one  half  of  the  whole  effect  in  this  case.  The  power 
gained  would  therefore,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
be  about  l'|^  horse-power,  or  sufficient  to  raise  about 
40,000  lbs.  or  20,000  quarts  a  foot  high  per  minute.  This 
is  equal  to  about  11  quarts,  30  feet  high,  per  second. 

If  it  is  found  necessary  to  store  the  water  thus  elevated 
so  as  to  extend  the  area  that  may  be  irrigated,  cisterns  of 
substantial  construction  will  be  required.  These  should 
be  of  brick  or  stone  laid  in  cement,  or  hydraulic  lime, 
and  strengthened  with  buttresses  upon  the  outside.  A  bank 
of  earth  should  then  be  heaped  up  around  it  and  sodded, 
and  if  tlie  bank  be  terraced,  it  may  be  utilized  by  plant- 
inor  it.  A  remarkably  elegant  structure  of  this  kind  is 
to  be  seen  in  a  market  garden  at  Astoria,  Long  Island. 
It  consists  of  a  large  cistern  of  stone  work  surrounded  by 


TAN^KS  A-^t)   CISTERTTS. 


37 


earth  sodded  in  part  and  in  part  planted,  and  surmounted 
by  a  rustic  stage  and  summer-house  built  of  cedar  boughs 
and  roots.  Above  the  whole,  towers  a  powerful  windmill 
which  serves  to  pump  the  water  from  a  well  near  by  into 
the  tank  and  force  it  from  thence  into  the  extensive 
greenhouses  and  other  buildings  upon  the  farm.  Although 
the  cost  of  such  a  structure  is  large,  yet  it  is  in  such  a 
case  as  this  no  more  than  a  necessary  outlay  of  capital, 
without  which  the  business  could  not  be  carried  on,  and 
is  simply  an  expenditure  made  in  a  true  spirit  of  economy. 
Such  a  tank  of  considerable  size  and  great  utility  (see 
fig.  3),  may  be  dug  in  the  ground  at  the  highest  part  of 


the  garden,  to  such  a  depth  that  the  soil  excavated  vrAX 
make  a  retaining  bank  to  support  the  portion  of  the  wall 
that  is  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  tank, 
whicli  is  circular,  may  be  covered  with  an  arcli  of  brick 
work,  and  may  be  surmounted  by  a  tool-house  or  otlicr 
useful  building.  In  this  case  a  brick  sliaft  2'  1^  feet  thick 
each  way  should  be  build  in  the  center  from  which  the 
arch  v/ould  spring  to  the  circular  wall  of  the  cistern  ;  the 
wall  should  be  9  inches  tliick  and  the  bottom  may  bo 
either  of  bricks  laid  flat  or  of  cement  laid  upop  the  earth. 


38  IRRIGATIOM. 

This  cistern,  if  20  feet  ia  diameter  and  12  feet  deep, 
would  hold  30,000  gallons,  or  enough  to  water  over  three 
acres  at  one  time.  If  the  cistern  is  open  the  wall  could 
slope  outward,  making  an  inverted  frustrum  of  a  cone 
(as  seen  in  fig.  4),  32  feet  wide  at  the  surface  and  8  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom.  The  earth  thrown  out  at  the  bot- 
tom will  form  a  cupport  for  the  upper  portion  of  the 
wall.  But  before  the  wall  is  built  the  earth  thrown  out 
should  be  solidly  rammed  down  in  layers  made  hollow  or 


Fig.  4.— OPEN    CISTEKN. 

of  the  form  of  a  basin.     The  form  is  shown  by  the  curv- 
ed lines  in  that  part  of  the  engraving. 

There  is  a  large  variety  of  pumps  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose of  irrigation,  but  the  severe  uses  to  which  they  are 
put  make  it  desirable  to  have  only  those  which  are  con- 
structed entirely  of  metal  or  wood.  Leather  valves  are 
soon  worn  and  become  useless,  causing  delays,  and  serious 
loss  of  time  in  repairs.  The  double  action  force  pumps, 
with  metal  valves,  or  the  rotary  pumps  of  the  ordinary 
kinds  with  metal  pinions  which  work  into  each  other 
similarly  to  cogwheels,  or  those  which  work  upon  the  old- 
fashioned  principle  of  the  Archimedean  screw,  but  which 
nevertheless  are  protected  by  a  modern  patent  are  all  suit- 
able for  this  work  on  account  of  their  durability.  A 
double-acting  force  pump  of  the  most  simple  character 
(fig.  5),  made  almost  entirely  of  wood,  is  one  of  the  best 
for  this  purpose  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  kept  in  working  order.  It  is  formed  of 
a  block  of  wood,  A,  A,  in  which  two  parallel  holes  are 


PUMPS. 


39 


bored  lengthwise.  In  these  holes  the  plungers,  B,  B, 
made  of  wood — maple  being  preferable — are  worked  by 
rods  affixed  to  a  rocking  shaft  in  connection  with  the 
power  above  the  ground.     Between  these  holes  a  smaller 

hole,  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines,  is  bored.  This  bore 
is  made  to  communicate 
with  the  other  two  by  a 
hole  bored  from  the  out- 
side (seen  at  C,  that  por- 
tion shaded  and  where 
the  letter  C  is  seen  being 
afterwards  plugged  up). 
A  leather  valve  is  placed 
so  as  to  close  the  ports  of 
this  lust  bole  and  turn  the 
current  of  water  into  the 
pump  tube.  This  valve  is 
inserted  into  a  dove-tail 
mortise,  cut  in  the  bottom 
of  the  block.  A  slotted 
plug,  D,  holds  the  valve, 
and  is  placed  and  fixed  in 
a  proper  position  in  the 
mortise.  The  lower  por- 
tion of  the  mortise  is  closed 
with  a  plug.  To  insert 
the  slotted  plug  a  hole  is 
bored  and  the  bottom  of 
the  block  is  sawed  into  to 
give  room  to  chisel  away  the  space  in  which  the  valve  works 
back  and  forth.  Tlie  pump  tube  may  l)e  a  log  bored  and 
inserted  into  tlie  block,  as  shown  at  E.  Half-inch  iron 
rods  may  be  used  to  work  the  plungers.  This  simi)le  and 
useful  ])iimi)  re<|uires  for  its  construction  only  those  mate- 
rials that  arc  available  everywhere,  and  only  such  skill  as 


Fig.  5. — DOUBLE-ACTING  FORCE  PUMP. 


40  IREIGATION. 

is  possessed  by  any  village  carpenter  or  mechanic.  It  lias 
been  patented  by  Mr.  Ed.  Buzby,  of  Shamong,  N.  J. 
Where  metal  pumps  are  preferred,  the  American  Sub- 
merged pump  made  by  the  Bridgeport  (Ct.)  Manufactur- 
ing Co.,  and  which  are  entirely  of  metal  and  almost  inde- 
structible, would  be  found  very  suitable.  For  lifting 
larger  quantities  of  water  a  great  variety  of  wholly  me- 
tallic pumps  are  manufactured  by  the  Hydraulic  and 
Drainage  Company  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


CHAPTEK    V. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  SURFACE. 

An  adequate  supply  of  water  having  been  obtained,  the 
preparation  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  be  irrigated 
is  the  next  work.  For  gardens  this  should  be  very  com- 
plete, as  the  work  will  be  permanent,  and  the  first  outlay 
will  be  the  last,  if  the  work  is  properly  done.  The  method 
of  laying  out  the  ground  will  depend  greatly  upon  the 
nature  of  the  surface.  If  it  is  perfectly  level,  with  no 
perceptible  s^ope  in  either  direction,  the  method  of  bed- 
ding should  be  employed.  This  is  done  by  plowing  the 
land  in  ridges  of  such  a  width  as  are  most  convenient 
for  the  culture  carried  on.  For  market  gardens,  where 
horse  cultivation  is  practiced,  these  beds  may  be  from  20 
to  30  feet  in  width.  In  smaller  gardens,  in  which  the 
hoe  is  used  and  hand  labor  employed  in  cultivation,  ridges 
of  10  to  12  feet  in  width  will  be  found  more  convenient. 
Where  the  spade  is  used  altogether  and  horses  are  never  ad- 
mitted, the  ridges  may  be  mad?  of  even  less  width  ;  the  di- 
mensions depending  altogether  upon  the  convenience  or  the 
necessity  of  the  cultivator.  The  system  described  applies 
to  each  of  these  cases.     The  ground  is  laid  out  into  plots 


PEEPAEIXG  TBE   SITRPACB.  41 

of  a  convenient  size,  "which  run  completely  across  the 
garden  or  inclosure,  in  a  direction  parallel  with  that  of 
the  main  water-furrow  from  which  the  supply  is  to  be 
derived.  In  case  the  garden  consists  of  four,  eight,  or 
ten  acres,  or  less  or  more,  a  proper  width  of  these  plots 
would  be  210  feet.  This  size  would  be  the  more  con- 
venient, as  210  feet  is  as  nearly  as  can  be  had  in  practice 
the  length  of  the  side  of  a  square  acre.  Besides,  this 
distance  is  as  great  as  water  can  be  made  to  run  in  a  fur- 
row in  ordinary  garden  soil  without  being  all  absorbed 
before  it  reaches  the  extremity.  Between  the  plots  suf- 
ficient spaces  will  be  left  for  roads,  if  any  are  needed,  for 
carts  or  wagons  to  go  through.  These  plots  are  then 
divided  into  other  plots  of  the  width  designed  for  the 
ridges.  They  are  then  plowed,  and  the  ridges  "  twice 
gathered  " — to  use  a  plowman's   parlance — which  means 


a,  Ci,~  --^^^*^*~-^™*«^^^~~-~^<^  --^ 

Fig.  6. — OUTLINE    OF    THE   BED. 

that  a  back  furrow  is  made  in  the  center  of  each  of  these 
secondary  plots,  and  the  furrows  are  thrown  each  way 
toward  the  back  furrow  until  the  ridge  is  completed. 
The  ground  should  then  be  rolled.  Then  another  back 
furrow  is  made  over  the  first,  and  the  ridge  is  plowed  as 
before,  making  each  of  the  furrows  shallower  than  the 
preceding  one,  so  as  to  leave  a  gentle  slope  from  the 
crown  of  the  ridge  toward  the  open  furrow  on  each  side 
of  it.  The  ridges  will  then  show  an  outline  as  seen  in 
fig.  6.  At  the  head  of  each  row  of  ridges  or  beds  the 
ground  is  plowed  into  a  headland  or  ridge,  which  is 
thrown  toward  the  first  made  ridges,  and  which  slopes 
gradually  away  from  tliom  to  the  fenoe  or  outer  boundary 
of  the  inclosure,  the  last  furrow  made,  next  the  fence, 
being  plowed  deeply  so  as  to  provide  a  ditch  for  draining 


4^ 


IKEIGATION. 


the  headland.  The  principal  canal  of  supply  for  the 
range  of  ridges  below  it  will  run  along  the  crest  of  this 
headland,  and  a  canal  of  distribution  will  run  along  the 
crest  of  each  of  the  secondary  ridges.  Each  headland 
or  principal  ridge,  with  its  canal,  and  the  range  of  ridges 
starting  at  right  angles  from  it,  each  one  of  them  having 
its  distributing  canal,  will  then  form  a  system  of  irriga- 
tion independent  of  the  other  series  of  ridges.  Every 
seven  of  these  secondary  ridges,  if  they  are  30  feet  wdde 
and  210  feet  long,  will  occupy  one  acre  of  ground.  At 
the  foot  of  each  series  of  ridges  will  be  needed  a  draining 


Fig.  7. — SYSTEM   OF  BEDS. 

furrow,  unless  the  ground  is  underdrained  with  tile,  to 
carry  off  the  surplus  water.  A  tile  drain  between  each 
pair  of  beds  or  secondary  ridges  would  be  the  best  method 
of  drainage,  and  the  supply  of  water  should  l)c  regulated 
so  that  tlie  whole  is  absorbed  and  none  is  allowed  to  flow 
away  unused.  The  tile  drains  arc  shown  at  a,  a,  a.  fig.  6. 
The  series  of  beds  and  canals  will  then  appear  as  shown 


FORMATION?    OF    BEGS.  43 

in  fig.  7,  in  which  three  secondary  ridges,  a,  a,  a,  with 
the  head-ridge,  A,  B,  and  the  cauals,  c,  c,  c,  belonging  to 
each  are  shown,  with  an  open  drain,  d,  d,  d.  The  arrows 
show  the  direction  in  which  the  water  flows.  Fig.  8 
shows  the  profile  of  the  ridge  and  section  of  the  head- 
ridge  with  its  canal  of  supply  as  if  they  were  cut  down 

A 


Fig.  8. — PROFILE   OF   BED. 

througli  the  center,  A,  being  the  head-ridge  with  its  canal, 
a,  a,  the  bed  or  secondary  ridge,  c,  the  drain  at  the  foot  of 
the  bed,  and  the  dotted  line  shows  the  course  the  tile 
drain  would  take  below  the  surface,  should  one  be  laid. 
Where  the  ground  has  a  slope  in  either  direction  the 
system  to  be  adopted  will  be  much  simpler  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.  At  the  head  of  tlie  slope  will  be  placed  the 
canal  of  supply.  This  will  be  the  only  permanent  work 
undertaken.  The  method  of  cultivation  of  the  field  or 
garden  will  control  the  method  of  distributing  the  water. 
It  will  be  necessary,  however,  to  cultivate  the  ground  in 
drills  or  hills  or  subordinate  beds,  upon  which  the  water 


Fig.  9.— FtTRROWS  FOR  A  REGTTLAR  SLOPE. 

may  be  turned  when  it  is  needed,  leading  it  by  small  fur- 
rows or  canals  made  with  the  hoe  or  a  small  hand  plow 
in  whatever  direction,  down  or  across  the  slope,  as  may 
be  desired.  Generally  the  arrangement  of  the  canals  of 
supply  will  be  as  shown  in  fig.  9,  in  which  the  supply 
canal  is  seen  at  a,  and  the  drain  which  carries  off  the 
surplus  water  is  seen  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  at  h.  A 
low  ridge  separates  the  latter  from  the  next  supply  canal. 
In  this  method  of  irrigation  the  water  may  be  supplied  as 


44 


IRfilGATIOK. 


a  thin  sheet  flowing  over  a  smoothed  surface,  or  as  a 
number  of  small  streams,  flowing  in  a  network  of  courses 
over  the  surface,  or  in  regular  channels  between  the  drills 
or  rows  of  plants.  The  ground  may  be  laid  out  upon 
various  plans,  as  the  method  of  cultivation  adopted 
may  require.     A  plan  (see  fig.  10),  adapted  for  a  crop 


Fig.  10.— AKRANGEMENT   FOK  HILLS  OR   DRILLS. 

cultivated  in  hills  or  drills,  each  drill  forming  its  own 
furrow  of  distribution  in  which  the  water  may  flow,  is  as 
follows  :  A  supply  canal,  seen  at  a,  h,  is  made  at  the 
highest  part  of  the  ground,  with  several  short  canals  con- 
necting it  with  a  distributing  canal,  c,  d.  From  this 
distributing  canal  the  water  flows  into  the  furrows,  shown 
by  the  fine  lines.  The  field  is  watered  in  sections  by 
closing  the  canal  at  any  desired  place,  as  at  e,  f,  with  a 
gheet-iron  plate   or  wooden  gate,  shown  at  fig.  11,  in 


IRRIGATION    OF    SLOPES. 


45 


which  is  seen  the  gate,  and  at  fig.  12  the  method  of  its 
use.  Obviously  by  shutting  the  canal  in  this  manner 
the  irrigation  is  confined  to  the 
portion  of  the  field  circumscribed 
by  the  closed  furrow,  shown  by  the 
dark  dotted  line,  /,  /,  in  fig.  10. 
The  direction  of  the  water  is  shown 
by  that  of  the  arrow.  Where  the 
slope  of  the  ground  is  too  abrupt 
to  admit  of  very  long  furrows,  a 
different  plan,  shown  in  fig.  13,  may  be  adopted.  In 
this  the  supply  canal,  seen  at  a,  h,  is  the  same  as  previous- 


Fig.   11. — HA>D-GATE. 


Fig.  13.— MODE  OF  USING  HA3SD-GATE. 

ly  described.  From  this  the  lateral  canals,  c,  c,  c,  are 
made,  each  of  which  supplies  its  own  dependent  furrows, 
and  no  more  water  is  admitted  to  these  canals  than  will 


u 

1  c- 

T  ■ 

c- 

C- 

I 

ll                 I 

11. 

"IP 

1 

Fij;.  13.— FUBB0W8  FOB  A  8TBEP  SLOPE. 

water  the  surface  to  which  it  is  tributary.     Those  canals 
gradually  decrease   in  size   until  they  disuppeai  at  the 


46 


IRRIGATION. 


boundary  of  the  field  or  garden.  The  water  flowing  from 
these  lateral  canals  takes  the  direction  shown  by  the 
arrow.  A  more  elaborate  arrangement  will  be  suitable 
to  market-farms,  where  a  variety  of  crops,  each  needing 
especial  treatment,  are  grown.     (Such  a  one  is  shown  in 

A  f  0 


d 


n 


K 


e 

FifiJ.  14. — ARRANGEMENT   FOR   A   MARKET   FARM. 

fig.  14.)  In  this  the  water  is  supplied  by  one  or  two 
canals,  A,  5  and  A,  C,  as  may  be  consistent  with  the  slope 
of  the  ground.  A  road,  d,  d,  is  laid  out  at  one  side  of 
the  plot,  crossing  the  supply  canal  or  feeder  by  a  culvert 
at  a,  a  portion  of  the  ground,  e,  e,  being  retained  for  cul- 
tivation, leaving  room  to  turn  a  cart  or  wagon  at  each 
end  of  it.  The  water  is  turned  from  the  main  supply 
canal,  A,  B,  into  the  main  distributing  canal  A,  C.    Th© 


MARKET    GAHDENS, 


47 


ground  to  be  cultivated  is  laid  off  into  plots  such  as  are 
suitable  to  the  system  of  culture  as  at  G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  L. 
These  may  be  irrigated  in  diverse  ways,  as  for  example 
by  long  furrows,  at  L,  in  smaller  beds  with  shorter  fur- 
rows, as  shown  at  G,  or  in  furrows  running  in  an 
opposite  direction,  at  H.  The  flow  of  water  in  the 
distributing  canals  is  controlled  and  diverted  by  means  of 
the  hand-gates  already  described,  as  at/. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  of  arranging  an  irrigated 
garden  is  as  follows  (fig.  15).     An  alley-way  or  cart-road 


Fig.  15. — METHOD   FOU   AN   IRRIGATED   GARDEN. 


may  be  made  opposite  the  entrance  A,  which  crosses  the 
canal  by  a  culvert,  and  a  path  is  continued  quite  around 
the  enclosure.  The  beds  G,  II,  I,  J,  K,  are  watered 
from  the  distributing  canals  as  in  fig  14,  and  the  flow  is 
diverted  and  controlled  by  means  of  the  hand-gates  already 
described,  (fig.  12),  which  when  placed  as  seen  at  a,  a, 
turn  the  water  on  to  the  Ix'd  //.  Tliis  water  may  he  di- 
rected   amongst   the   hills  or  drills,  wherever  it  may  bo 


48 


IKKIGATION. 


required,  by  means  of  small  canals  made  with  a  hoe  and 
the  surplus  will  be  caught  in  the  foot  drain,  I,  I.  A  great 
variety  of  methods  may  be  used  with  this  and  the  previous 
plans,  so  as  to  meet  the  necessities  of  all  sorts  of  crops. 
The  renowned  Erfurt  cauliflowers  are  grown  in  gardens 
irrigated  on  such  a  plan  as  this  ;  the  water  flowing  in 
permanent  ditches  being  dipped  up  with  long-handled 
scoops,  and  scattered  about  the  plants  daily.  These  cau- 
liflowers are  grown  upon  what  was  originally  low,  wet 
soil,  and  the  ditches  serve  at  the  same  time  for  drainage 
and  irrigation. 

A  plan  for  a  garden  very  completely  irrigated  by  means 
of  a  well  or  reservoir  may  be  laid  out  as  follows,  (see  fig. 
16).     A  road  passes  through  the  center  and  around  the 


1 

A 

O       i 

Fig.  16. — PLAN  FOR   IRRIGATING   FROM   A  WELL. 

plot.  The  well  and  reservoir,  windmill  or  horse-power, 
are  situated  at  the  highest  part  of  the  ground,  (see  A). 
Erom  this  the  water  is  conveyed  by  channels,  (shown  by 
dark  lines),  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  garden.  From  these 
channels  it  is  distributed  in  small  furrows  to  every  row  of 
plants  or  vegetables.     For  a  small  garden  this  system  is 


WATER   PURKOWS.  49 

doubtless  the  most  perfect  of  all  methods  of  irrigation 
by  surface  channels  and  furrows  ;  while  for  larger  ones  or 
market  farms,  in  which  the  supply  can  be  procured  from 
wells  or  carried  into  reservoirs  for  final  distribution,  it. is 
equally  perfect.  The  form  of  the  channel  deserves  con- 
sideration. The  typical  canal  or  furrow,  (shown  at  fig. 
17),  is  one  in  which  the  earth  thrown  out  forms  a  bank 
above  the  channel,  preventing  the  influx  of  water  from 


Fig.  17. — FOK.vl    or    iLKitOW. 


a  neighboring  channel,  while  the  lower  bank  is  not  raised, 
aixd  permits  the  escape  of  a  thin  sheet  of  water  over  the 
ground  below  it.  There  are  many  forms  of  furrow  avail- 
able which  will  occur  to  the  practical  operator  as  they 
may  be  needed.  But  there  are  some  methods  of  strength- 
ening the  furrows  against  wearing  away  by  the  currents 


.,.^->'.# 


■0>; 


Fij^.   18. — PHOTECTKU    FLiKKOW. 

of  water  worthy  of  notice.  One  of  these  (shown  at  fig. 
J  8),  consists  of  a  trough  of  wood,  two  strips  of  four  or 
six  inches  in  width  being  used.  These  are  nailed  to- 
gether by  their  edges,  and  imbedded  in  the  furrow. 
The  water,  in  passing  along,  is  prevented  from  escaping 
into  or  from  flowing  over  the  soil  except  at  the  open 
side  of  the  trough,  A  portable  wooden  trough  (fig,  19), 
with  cross  channels,  may  be  used  to  convey  water  over 
ground   that  is  under  cultivation,  or  is    not  in  a  con- 


50 


IRRIGAi-ION. 


ditioQ  to  be  disturbed  with  the  hoe.  This  trough  is 
peculiarly  adapted  for  use  in  the  system  of  bedding  before 
described,  as  it  may  be  laid  upon  the  crest  of  the  head 
ridge,  and  the  cross  channels  connected  with  the  furrows 
upon  the  crests  of  the  beds.  These  latter  may  be  made 
of  common  open  horse-shoe  drain  tiles  inverted.    The  uses 


Fig.  19.— TROUGH  FOR  CROSS-FTJRROWS. 

to  which  this  kind  of  drain  tiles  may  be  put  in  surface 
irrigation  are  very  numerous,  but  they  will  be  so  obvious 
to  those  interested  that  it  is  necessary  only  to  suggest 
their  usefulness  in  this  regard. 

For  carrying  the  water  beneath  roads  or  paths  a  wooden 
pipe  should  be  provided,  (fig.  20).  This  is  made  of  stout 
plank,  placed  longitudinally  for  the  sides  and  cross-wise 


Fig^.  20. — CULVERT   FOR   ROADS. 


for  the  top  and  bottom.  This  method  of  construction 
gives  the  extreme  strength  of  the  material  where  it  is 
most  wanted,  and  prevents  the  crushing  of  the  culvert 
by  the  weight  of  a  loaded  cart  or  wagon,  the  wheels  of 


PIPES    AXD    TILES.  51 

•which  might  otherwdse  split  the  covering.  These  pipea 
are  phiced  in  the  channels  beneath  the  roads  or  paths,  and 
the  earth  is  heaped  over  them  gradually,  sloping  in  each 
direction.  These  pipes  should  be  used  wherever  there  is 
danger  that  earth  may  fall  into  the  channels,  or  that  they 
may  be  injured  by  rough  usage.  If  made  of  seasoned 
oak  plank  two  inches  thick  and  bedded  in  waste  lime  or 
mortar,  they  will  last  many  years  without  deterioration. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

IRRIGATION   BY   PIPES   AND    TILES. 

Many  elaborate  improvements  have  been  made  within 
the  past  few  years  in  the  practice  of  irrigation.  The 
costly  character  of  these  improvements  renders  them  in- 
applicable to  any  lands  except  those  devoted  to  crops  of 
great  value.  The  minimum  value  of  the  crops  that  may 
be  profitably  raised  by  the  methods  of  irrigation  here  re- 
ferred to  may  be  placed  at  1400  per  acre.  In  some  cases 
where  the  profitable  use  of  land  depends  entirely  upon 
these  costly  plans,  this  minimum  may  be  reduced  con- 
siderably. Thus,  rather  than  have  land  idle  it  may  pay 
to  expend  a  permanent  capital  of  $250  per  acre,  tlie  year- 
ly interest  of  which,  with  the  annual  cost  of  water,  and 
labor,  may  on  the  whole  result  in  a  yearly  outlay  of  $100 
per  acre,  to  produce  crops  which  may  realize  $;i50to  $300 
per  acre.  For  a  market  garden  tliesc  amounts  are  much 
less  than  the  average  value  of  the  crops  produced,  and 
many  seasons  occur  in  which  the  losses  by  reason  of  dry 
weatlier  at  critical  periods  will  amount  to  more  than — or 
many  times — the  total  value  of  the  improvements  here  to 
be  described.  It  is  therefore  a  question  of  serious  imjjort 
to  market  prdencrs^  small  fruit  raisers^  and  the  propric 


52  IRRIGATION. 

tors  nf  private  vegetable  gardens,  whether  or  not  they 
could  profitably  adopt  some  of  these  methods  which  have 
actually  been  jjut  in  operation  upon  grass  farms  in  Eng- 
land vfitli  very  satisfactory  results  as  to  profit.  From  a 
careful  consideration  of  this  question,  there  will  doubtless 
result  a  very  decided  opinion  as  to  its  feasibility  and  its 
profitableness.  Tbe  simple  fact  that  in  many  cases  the 
crops  which,  under  favorable  circumstances,  should  have 
realized  $600  to  $1,200  per  acre,  have  been  so  injured  by 
drouth  as  to  fail  to  pay  the  cost  of  production  is  sufiicient 
to  prove  the  propriety  of  this  opinion,  and  to  induce 
gardeners  and  fruit  growers  to  adopt  methods  of  securing 
a  full  crop  in  spite  of  the  adversity  of  the  season. 

There  are  many  cases  in  which  the  methods  of  surface 
irrigation  previously  described  are  unsuitable.  Where 
the  surfaces  are  irregular,  where  the  crops  are  changed 
several  times  in  a  season,  where  the  ground  is  under  bien- 
nial or  perennial  crops  and  furrows  cannot  be  maintained, 
or  where  the  ground  is  too  valuable  to  be  occupied  by 
furrows  or  water  channels,  these  and  other  conditions 
will  be  favorable  to  the  use  of  one  or  another  of  the  fol- 
lowing plans.  Tbe  first  to  be  treated  of  is  that  of  under- 
ground pipes  and  stationary  hydrants,  from  which  water 
may  be  distributed  under  pressure  through  india-rubber 
hose  and  sprinklers.  An  elevated  reservoir  is  provided, 
from  Avhich  an  iron  pipe  having  a  capacity  equal  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  area  for  each  acre  to  be  irrigated  is 
carried  along  the  center  of  the  garden.  A  two-inch  pipe 
will  be  required  for  two  acres,  a  three-inch  one  for  four 
acres,  and  a  four-inch  one  for  eight  acres.  From  ih>3 
other  pipes  are  carried  at  right  angles  200  feet  apart  to 
within  100  feet  of  the  boundary  upon  each  side.  The 
pipes  are  laid  a  foot  beneath  the  surface,  or  so  far  that 
they  can  never  be  disturbed  by  the  plow,  (see  fig.  21.) 
Upon  the  lateral  pipes,  which  should  be  at  least  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  so  that  the  flow  shall  not  be  un- 


THE    TTSE    OF   PIPES, 


53 


duly  interrupted  by  friction,  upright  pipes  or  hydrants 
are  attached  which  project  at  least  three  inches  above  tho 
surface  of  the  soil.  These  are  about  200  feet  apart.  They 
are  furnished  with  valves  which  operate  by  means  of  a 
square  head  and  a  key.     Each  one  is  fitted  with  a  cap 


Ix^    21  — IKKIGVTING   BT   PITL^    AND    IIO-'I 


"which  screws  on  or  off,  and  which  is  attached  to  the  hy- 
drant by  a  short  chain  for  its  preservation.  When  this 
cap  is  unscrewed  a  section  joint  affixed  to  the  end  of  the 
hose  may  be  screwed  in  its  place. 

When  this  apparatus  is  in  operation,  the  water  descend- 
ing from  the  elevated  tank  or  reservoir  passes  through  the 
pipes  and  the  hose,  and  escapes  with  some  degree  of  force, 
depending  upon  the  hight  of  the  head,  tlirough  a  flatten- 
ed nozzle,  which  scatters  it  in  a  thin  sheet  or  broken 
shower.  With  this  apparatus  one  man  may  water  copi- 
ously five  acres  of  ground  in  a  day  or  night.  Each  hy- 
drant being  the  center  of  a  plot  200  feet  scpiaro,  serves 
to  irrigate,  with  100  feet  of  hose,  very  nearly  or  per- 
haps one  acre  of  ground.  To  irrigate  five  acres  in  10 
hours  would  give  an  hour  and  a  half  to  each  2)lot,  aa 


54 


IRRIGATIOK^. 


amply  sufficient  time  for  an  active  man  to  get  around  a 
plot  of  200  by  300  feet.  The  plan  here  described  is  illus- 
trated in  ligure  22.  The  well,  with  reservoir,  windmill 
and  force-pump,  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  plot  to 
be  irrigated  at  A.  From  this  the  pipes,  shown  by  the 
double  lines,  are  carried  as  has  been  described.  The  points 


■ 

( 

) 

/ 

y 

L 

1 
t 

-  / 

1 
1 

\ 
\    r, 

1 
/ 

/ 

^-'.VJ-' 

A 

■ 

Fig.  22. — PLAN   OF  PIPES   AND   HYDRANTS. 

marked  upon  the  lateral  pipes  show  the  positions  of  the 
hydrants,  and  the  dotted  circles  around  a  few  of  them 
show  the  extent  to  which  the  hose  covers  the  ground. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  has  been  successfully  in- 
troduced in  England,  where  it  has  been  patented,  for  the 
irrigation  of  meadows.  In  this  method  the  distributing 
pipes  are  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  30  feet 
apart,  and  are  perforated  in  such  a  manner  that  the  water 
is  discharged  in  a  shower  of  spray  upon  the  ground,  (see 


THE    USE    OP   PIPES    OX   TITE   SURFACE. 


55 


fig.  23.)  This  distance,  however,  will  depend  altogether 
upon  the  force  with  which  the  water  is  discharged  or  upon 
the  amount  of  head  given  to  the  supply  reservoir.  The 
operation  of  this  system  is  illustrated  herewith.  It  has 
the  disadvantage  of  increased  cost,  but  the  merit  of  econ- 
omy of  application.  One  acre  is  irrigated  at  a  time  and 
during  one  hour.  The  irrigation  is  done,  as  it  always 
should  be,  at  night,  or  between  the  afternoon  and  the 
morning.  The  apparatus  is  self-operating  and  needs  only 
the  turning  on  and  off  of  the  water  by  an  attendant,  who 
can  be  occupied  with  other  work  in  the  intervals.     A  plau 


Fiir.  ■..'.•5.— IKlilGATING   BY    SUKFACK    I'IPEJ- 


of  subsoil  irrigation  by  means  of  drain  tiles  has  been  in 
operation  for  many  years,  although  a  recent  patent  has 
been  granted  in  the  United  States  for  the  invention.  The 
patent  only  refers  to  perforated  tiles.  But  the  common 
drain  tiles  will  answer  every  purpose  that  the  perforated 
pipes  can  or  will.  The  plan  is  very  simple.  It  is  exactly 
the  reverse  of  draining  by  tiles.  Large  pipes— the  bize 
being  chosen  to  suit  the  system  tributary  to  them— are 
laid  down,  a  foot  beneath  the  surface,  at  the  highest  |iart 
of  the  tract  to  be  irrigated.  From  those,  smaller  pipes 
branch  as  the  secondary  channels  of  supply,  and  from 
them  one-inch  pipes  again  branch  as  distributing  chan- 


56  IKKlGATlOJT. 

nels  to  the  limits  of  the  tract.  The  water  escapes  through 
the  joints  of  the  pipes,  aud  rises  by  capillary  attraction 
or  absorption  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.  As  the  water 
will  naturally  tend  to  sink  in  the  soil  in  a  greater  measure 
than  it  will  rise  to  the  surface,  the  distributing  pipes  Avill 
need  to  be  placed  yery  closely,  a  distance  of  from  six  to 
eight  feet  being  the  greatest  that  should  be  allowed.  This 
system  has  the  advantages  of  cheapness  of  material, 
of  permanence  and  of  economy  in  applying  the  water. 
But  it  possesses  the  disadvantages  of  large  cost  of  labor 
in  laying  the  tiles,  and  of  a  very  wasteful  expen- 
diture of  water,  a  large  portion  of  it  escaping  downward 
and  useless  to  the  crop.  The  trenches  in  which  the  tiles 
are  laid  may  be  very  cheaply  made  by  plowing  twice  or 
thrice  in  the  same  furrow  until  it  is  twelve  inches  deep, 
and  when  the  tiles  are  laid,  most  of  the  earth  may  be  plow- 
ed back  into  the  furrow  again.  But  one  other  objection 
will  occur,  in  that  for  any  sort  of  favorable  result  the 
slope  of  the  ground  must  be  regular,  or  the  arrangement 
of  the  tiles  must  be  made  with  costly  exactness.  Of  the 
three  systems  here  described,  this  last  is  the  least  promis- 
ino-,  and  should  only  be  adopted  in  those  special  cases 
when,  under  a  combination  of  favoring  circumstances,  it 
offers  special  inducements.  Under  such  circumstances 
it  has  been  successfully  applied  in  California,  and  a  cor- 
respondent of  the  "  Rural  Press,"  of  San  Francisco,  from 
Santa  Rosa,  wrote  recently  to  that  Journal  as  follows  : 
"  I  have  practiced  it  on  a  small  scale  for  several  years. 
I  lay  down  two-inch  tile  ten  feet  apart,  so  the  top  of  the 
tile  is  just  below  the  plowshare.  I  give  them  just  fall 
enough  to  run  the  water  along,  and  fasten  up  the  lower 
end.  I  make  the  entrance  large  enough  to  have  plenty 
of  head,  than  turn  in  a  good  stream  of  water  that  will 
force  its  way  through.  By  this  process  the  land  never 
bakes,  but  keeps  moist  and  loose.  I  believe  one-fourth 
the  water  used  under  the  ground  is  better  than  the  whole 


LIQUID   MAlftTRE.  57 

on  the  surface."  This  opinion  as  to  the  economy  of  the 
practice  will  very  probably  be  found  premature  on  further 
experience. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

IRRIGATION    WITH    LIQUID    MANURE. 

The  ordinary  cultivation  of  gardens  exhibits  a  most 
striking  want  of  economy.  Farm  gardens,  and  those 
smaller  ones  attached  to  village  dwellings,  ought  to  be 
cultivated  in  the  most  careful  and  economical  manner. 
Not  a  drop  of  rain  water  ought  to  be  allowed  to  go  to 
waste.  The  house-slops  should  be  carefully  utilized.  The 
cesspool,  the  stable,  and  the  garbage-heap  ought  to  serve 
the  useful  and  appropriate  purpose  of  aiding  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  household  vegetables  and  fruits.  But,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  so  utilized  com- 
pletely in  any  single  homestead  upon  this  continent.  In 
some  few  cases  they  have  been  made  to  partially  serve 
their  proper  purpose  with  the  best  effects.  It  is,  however, 
in  more  densely-populated  countries  that  liquid  manuring 
has  been  practiced,  and  these  valuable  materials  made 
serviceable.  Without  going  so  far  as  China  and  Japan, 
for  examples  of  this  economy,  it  may  be  stated  that  Bel- 
gium, the  most  thickly-peopled  country  of  Europe, 
offers  the  nearest  and  most  conspicuous  example  of  the 
preservation  of  every  kind  of  animal  manure,  botli  solid 
and  lifjuid,  and  its  manipulation  in  tanks  for  the  purpose 
of  a])plying  its  solution  or  dilution  to  gardens  and  small 
farms.  In  many  parts  of  P'ngland,  too,  this  system  U 
closely  followed,  and  the  market  farmers  adjoiinng  towns 
and  cities  carefully  collect  the  waste  of  the  dwellings  for 
use  upon  their  croi)s. 


58  IRRIGATION. 

But  in  these  instances,  by  reason  of  tlie  abundance 
and  cheapness  of  labor  and  the  high  value  of  the  crops 
raised,  rude  and  cumbersome  methods  of  gathering,  pre- 
paring, and  applying  these  fertilizers  are  in  use.  It  is  very 
rarely  that  one  can  see  even  in  England,  in  a  small  way, 
the  thoroughly  economic  system  of  using  liquid  manures 
til  at  are  made  use  of  in  a  large  way  for  irrigating  farms 
with  the  liquid  waste  or  ''sewage"  of  towns  and  cities. 
Their  usual  cumbersome  methods  are  not  adapted  to  our 
uses,  yet  we  may  gather  from  them  some  ideas  applicable 
to  our  circumstances.  There  is,  however,  an  arrangement 
of  house  drainage  combined  with  garden  irrigation  recent- 
ly introduced  that  has  been  tested  with  satisfactory  re- 
sults, and  that  is  full  of  promise  for  its  future  general 
adoption.  This  grew  out  of  the  successful  application  of 
the  system  of  earth  closets  to  some  cottages  in  a  village 
in  the  county  of  Essex.  The  vast  superiority  of  these 
over  the  common  filtliy  cesspool,  made  more  conspicuous 
than  ever  the  inconvenience,  insalubrity  and  waste  of  the 
usual  slop  holes  where  the  liquid  waste  of  the  house  was 
disposed  of.  For  sanitary  purposes  a  method  was  devis- 
ed to  dispose  of  this  waste,  and  for  economic  purposes  a 
plan  of  utilizing  it  was  adopted. 

From  the  sink  of  the  kitchen  a  pipe,  furnished  with  an 
air-trap,  is  made  to  discharge  into  a  tank  built  of  cement 
concrete  outside  of  the  wall  of  the  house.  The  water  from 
the  roof  is  carried  to  the  tank  by  a  pipe,  which  also  serves 
for  ventilation.  The  tank  is  simply  an  above-ground 
cistern  made  water-tight  and  lined  with  hydraulic  cement. 
The  overflow  from  the  tank  is  made  intermittent  by  the 
ingenious  use  of  a  siphon,  or  bent  pipe.  The  operation 
of  this  overflow  is  simple.  When  the  cistern  is  filled  to 
the  movable  cover,  the  water  then  trickles  over  the 
bend  of  the  siphon  into  the  drain.  "When  this  occurs 
the  discharge  of  a  pailful  of  water  into  the  sink  and 
through  the  pipe  into  the  tank  suddenly  fills  the  pipe, 


UTILIZING   HOUSE-WASTE. 


69 


flushes  the  siphon  and  sets  it  in  operation,  and  the  tank 
is  drained  to  the  level  of  the  shorter  log  of  the  siphon. 
The  contents  of  the  cistern  iiow  away  by  a  pipe,  which 
leads  from  the  drain.  Tliis  tank  is  called  the  "self-act- 
ing iiush  tank."  The  cover  is  a  movable  plank  floor 
which  serves  to  allow  access  to  the  tank  for  any  purpose. 
But  this  leads  to  the  real  subject  matter  in  hand,  the  ir- 
rigation of  the  garden  with  liquid  manure. 

By  this  plan  this  can  be  secured  whenever  it  is  desired 
by  simply  introducing  into  the  tank  sufficient  water  to 
set  the  siphon  in  operation.  The  liquid  than  passes  into 
the  drain,  and  from  that  into  subdrains  of  one-inch  drain 
tiles  placed  one  foot  beneath  the  sur- 
face, and  escapes  through  the  joints  of 
these  into  the  soil.  This  arrangement  is 
seen  in  the  plan  given  in  tlie  accom- 
panying illustration,  fig.  24.  The  outer 
lines  represent  the  boundary  of  the  gar- 
den plot,  supposed  to  be  an  eigth  of  an 
acre,  or  50  x  100  feet.  The  tank  is  seen 
at  T ;  the  dark  lines  are  the  irrigating 
drains  ;  the  square  dots  are  inspection 
wells,  covered  with  a  square  stone  or 
plank  cover,  by  which  examinations  are 
occasionally  made  as  to  the  condition  of 
the  drains,  and  the  parallel  lines  between 
the  drains  are  pipes  which  carry  off  any 
excess  of  moisture.  This  plan  is  capal)le  of  very  ex- 
tended application  where  the  land  to  be  irrigated  may  be 
beneath  the  level  of  the  site  of  the  house  and  the  tank, 
and  no  house  sliould  be  built  on  a  lower  level  tlian  the 
ground  around  it. 

An  improved  tank  suita})le  for  dwellings  of  a  some- 
what superior  character  is  sliown  in  figure  25.  Tlie  prin- 
ciple is  exactly  tlie  same  as  tliai  previously  described,  tlie 
material  of  the  tank  being  different.     It  is  cylindrical  ia 


tL-I 

I — '    '       c       '^ ~, 


Fig.  S4.— PLAN 

OF   DRAIN. 


60 


IRRIGATION-. 


form,  and  may  be  of  galvanized  iron,  of  zinc,  lead,  or 
wrought  iron,  or  of  hard  brick  laid  in  cement.  The  dis- 
cbarge pipe  may  be  of  cast  iron.  This  form  of  tank 
has  been  found  to  work  with  the  greatest  ease  ;  two  quarts 
of  water  suddenly  discharged  into  it  when  full  being  suf- 
ficient to  set  the  flush  into  operation.  This  apparatus 
consists  of  the  cylindrical  tank.  A,  with  a  trapped  inlet. 


Fig.   25.— SELF-DISCHABGING  SLOP-TANK. 

which  also  forms  a  movable  cover  to  give  access  to  the 
inside  of  the  tank.  The  pipe  from  the  sink  discharges 
over  the  grating  of  the  inlet,  B,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
A  socket,  c,  is  prepared  for  a  ventilating  pipe.  There  is 
also  the  siphon,  D,  and  what  is  called  the  ''discharging 
trough," y,  consisting  of  a  small  chamber  made  to  turn 
round,  so  that  its  mouth  may  be  set  in  the  direction  that 


FLUSH    TANKS.  61 

is  required  for  connecting  it  with  the  line  of  outlet  pipes, 
and  provided  with  a  movable  cover  for  access  to  the 
mouth  of  the  siphon.  This  *'  discharging  ti'ough  "  is 
an  important  feature  in  the  tank,  as  it  is  of  a  peculiar 
shape,  which,  by  checking  the  outflow  of  the  liquid  from 
the  mouth  of  the  siphon,  enables  a  smaller  quantity  of 
liquid  flowing  into  the  tank  to  fill  the  bend  of  the  siphon 
and  set  it  fully  in  action. 

In  regard  to  the  operation  of  this  tank,  and  the  drains 
connected  with  it,  Mr.  Grco,  E.  Waring,  of  Newport,  R.  I., 
writes  as  follows  in  the  American  Agriculturist  of  Janu- 
ary, 1876:  "  I  have  found  that  in  less  than  two  minutes, 
about  two-thirds  of  a  barrel  of  liquid,  (already  accumu- 
lated in  the  tank),  flows  through  the  drain  in  a  cleansing 
stream,  which  an  examination  shows  to  have  left  no  refuse 
matters  in  its  course.  This  tank  is  not  yet  made  in 
America,  and  owing  to  its  size  and  the  cost  of  importing 
it,  it  is  not  likely  that  it  will  for  the  present  come  largely 
into  use.  In  the  meantime,  the  inventor  has  taken  no 
patent  in  this  country,  and  the  invention  is  open  to  the 
use  of  all  who  choose  to  adopt  it. 

**  The  accompanying  illustrations  show  how  a  perfectly 
efficient  flush-tank  may  be  made  from  a  kerosene  or  other 
tight  barrel  without  much  expense.  The  barrel  must  be 
a  sound  one,  with  its  bung  well  secured,  and  both  of  its 
heads  in  good  order.  Cut  a  circular  hole  in  the  upper 
head,  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  Half  way  between  the 
side  of  this  hole  and  the  chime,  make  another  hole  two 
inches  in  diameter.  Finish  the  larger  hole  with  an  edg- 
ing made  of  lead  or  copper,  lapping  over  about  an  inch, 
and  being  securely  nailed  fast  in  a  bed  of  'wliite  lead. 
This  metal  should  ])e  beaten  in  a  groove  or  gutter  just 
inside  of  the  large  opening,  having  its  edge  turned  up  at 
a  distance  of  one  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  hole.  The 
head  will  then  have  an  o])ening  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
surrounded  by  a  chuunel  tliree-fourths  of  au  inch,  or  ua 


62 


lEKIGATION. 


inch  deep,  and  one  inch  wide.  A  funnel  of  the  same 
metal,  (tin  or  ga,lvanized  iron  would  soon  rust  out),  should 
be  made  to  fit  in  this  groove,  its  upper  edge  being  turned 
over  about  an  inch  for  the  purpose.  The  funnel  at  its 
lower  end  should  be  furnished  with  a  pipe  turning  up  in 
such  a  way  as  to  constitute  a  trap.     Near  the  top  of  the 


ill?     2b — L.iKKEL   TAXK. 

funnel  there  should  be  a  shoulder  capable  of  supporting 
an  ordinary  round  stove-grate  of  cast-iron  ;  this  grate  is 
intended  to  keep  back  any  coarse  matters  which  might 
obstruct  the  siphon,  and  to  serve  as  a  weight  to  keep  the 
funnel  in  its  place.  Into  the  two-inch  hole  in  the  barrel 
top  insert  a  ventilating  pipe,  which  may  be  of  tin,  and 


HOME-MADE    TANK.  63 

whicli  should  be  carried  to  the  highest  conveuient  point 
well  away  from  any  window  or  chimney  top.  Through 
one  side  of  the  barrel,  close  to  the  top,  make  a  hole  Lirge 
enough  to  receive  a  1'  |,  inch  lead  pipe,  which,  being  turn- 
ed down  to  within  G  inches  of  the  bottom  inside,  and  2 
or  3  inches  lower  at  the  outside,  is  to  constitute  the  sijihon 
for  emptying  the  barrel —  this  pipe  should  not  be  larger 
than  1'Ij  inches  interior  diameter,  as  the  larger  the  pipe 
the  greater  the  amount  of  water  needed  to  start  it  into 
action.  The  outer  end  of  this  pipe  delivering  into  the 
drain  is  partially  shielded  from  the  access  of  air  by  an  ar- 
rangement which  will  be  described  further  on. 

"  Fig.  26  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  whole  apparatus. 
A  is  the  barrel,  b  is  the  metal  rim,  or  gutter  surrounding 
the  opening  ;  c  is  the  funnel  with 
its  trapjjed  outlet ;  d  is  the  iron 
grate  ;  e  is  the  siphon  ;  /  is  the 
outlet  drain  ;  g  is  the  ventilator ; 
and  h  is  a  simple  cylinder  of  gal- 
vanized iron  or  tin,  to  be  used 
when  the  top  of  the  barrel  is  above 
Fig.  27.-FTj>-^L.  ground,  so  that  it  may  be  well 
packed  around  with  leaves  or  litter  without  danger  of 
these  getting  in  to  choke  the  grate.  Where  such  packing 
is  necessary,  the  whole  affair  should  be  housed  in  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  wind,  and  indeed  it  is  always  necessary 
to  prevent  the  blowing  in  of  rul)l)i.s]i  wliich  might  i)hister 
itself  over  the  grate  and  prevent  the  water  from  entering. 
"  Fig.  27  shows  more  in  detail  the  construction  of  the 
rim,  the  funnel,  and  the  grate.  The  gutter  of  the  rim 
will  be  always  kei)t  full  of  water  from  the  small  amount 
splashing  over,  and  this  serves  to  seal  the  channel  at  this 
point  Just  as  the  bent  pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  funnel 
seals  its  outlet.  These  seals  are  not  liable  to  l)e  forced, 
because  of  the  ample  air  channel  furnished  by  the  ven- 
tilatpr, 


64 


IRRIGATION. 


"  Fig.  28  is  a  longitudinal  section,  and  fig,  29  a  cross 
section  of  the  outlet  drain,  show  the  arrangement  for 
checking  the  flow  of  the  siphon.  A  dam  (i)  which  may 
be  of  wood,  brick,  or  any  other  suitable  material,  closes 
the  drain  in  front  of  the  siphcn  to  a  hight  a  little  above 
its  lower  end.  This  is  notched  down  at  its  top  to  a  point 
just  below  that  of  the  end  of  the  siphon,  in  such  a  way 
that  after  the  barrel  is  discharged,  the  siphon  itself  will 
be  emptied  and  will  fill  itself  with  air.  This  notch  is  too 
small  to  accommodate  any  considerable  flow  of  the  pipe, 
and  the  dam  checks  back  the  first  water  running,  and 
helps  to  bring  the  siphon  into  action,  but  after  the  flow 
has  all  passed  over,  it  lets  the  water  behind  the  dam  fall 

low  enough  to  admit  air  to  the 
pipe.  I  do  not  know  that  any 
thing  further  is  necessary  in  the 
way  of  practical  directions,  ex- 
cept to  say  that  the  siphon  pipe 
had  better  be  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  barrel,  outside  and 
in,  by  bits  of  tin  tacked  over  it 
so  as  to  prevent  it  from  being  in- 
jured.  Indeed,  the  whole  siphon  might  be  inside  of  the 
barrel,  its  lower  end  passing  out  through  a  hole  near  the 
bottom  ;  this  arrangement  entirely  obviates  the  danger  of 
its  becoming  jammed,  or  the  possibility  of  a  trickling  flow 
through  it  being  frozen  until  the  accumulated  ice  would 
quite  close  it." 

The  danger  of  filling  up  the  pipes  with  sediment  would 
prevent  the  application  of  this  system  to  the  use  of  mat- 
ter from  cesspools  or  barnyard  manure  tanks.  It  would 
not,  however,  prevent  its  use  for  the  purpose  of  discharg- 
ing a  cesspool  through  a  pipe  of  sufiicient  diameter,  4  to 
6  inches  for  instance,  into  a  manure  tank  in  the  stable 
yard,  where  it  could  be  mingled  with  the  liquid  draining 
fyom  th^  stables.     This  manure  tank  would  then  form 


Fi^.  28.— OUTLET.— Fig.  29. 


USE  OF  LIQUID  ma:n'uke.  65 

the  cesspool  ;  the  overflow  from  the  house  tank  passing 
into  it  would  flush  and  cleanse  the  latter  at  every  con- 
siderable shower.  A  good  supply  of  liquid  matter  of  the 
very  richest  fertilizing  power  would  then  be  at  hand  for 
use  by  means  of  permanent  or  temporary  irrigating.  The 
Hquid  would  need  to  be  raised  from  the  cistern  by  a 
pump  worked  by  wind  or  horse-power,  as  has  been  already 
described,  and  conveyed  through  large  pipes  into  the 
distributing  channels.  These  could  be  permanently  made 
of  inverted  horse-shoe  tiles,  or  in  any  of  the  methods  here- 
tofore mentioned,  or  temporarily  by  the  use  of  the  hoe. 

In  applying  liquid  manure  it  is  always  necessary  to  use 
it  in  a  highly  diluted  state ;  even  so  much  diluted  that  it 
would  run  oS  perfectly  clear  might  be  of  sufficient  strength 
for  all  purposes.  The  danger  lies  in  using  it  of  too  great 
a  strength  rather  than  in  diluting  it  too  copiously.  It 
has  been  found  in  practice  when  a  heavy  rain  had  filled 
the  tanks  at  a  season  when  there  was  but  a  very  small  sup- 
ply of  manure,  and  the  dilution  was  certainly  not  less  than 
a  hundred  times  weaker  than  ordinary  liquid  manure, 
that  the  use  of  this  weak  liquid  upon  a  plot  of  corn  fod- 
der, gave  a  wonderful  stimulus  to  the  crop,  and  the  sud- 
den change  to  an  intensely  dark  green  color  proved  that 
it  was  sufficiently  strong,  although  from  its  color  and 
freedom  from  smell  the  source  of  the  liquid  would  not 
have  been  suspected.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  easy  to  injure  a  crop  by  using  a  too  concentrat- 
ed liquid  manure. 

For  the  most  economical  preparation  and  use  of  liquid 
manure  proper  cisterns  need  to  be  provided.  The  most 
convenient  situation  for  these  is  the  barnyard,  where  the 
drainage  from  the  stables  may  be  gathered,  and  wliore, 
above  the  cistern  or  near  it  upon  one  side,  the  manure 
may  be  heaped.  When  it  is  decided  to  use  liquid  manure 
there  need  not  be  so  much  attention  given  to  the  preser- 
vation of  the  solid  manure,  and  altliough  it  may  seem  to 


6r6  IRRIGATION. 

be  a  sacrifice  of  this  indispensable  addition  to  the  soil,  yet 
it  is  far  from  being  such  in  reality.  On  the  contrary,  the 
use  of  liquid  manure  is  really  an  economy,  and  results  in 
a  saving  of  time  and  labor  and  increases  the  effectiveness 
of  the  solid  manure.  Being  applied  at  the  time  when, 
and  in  the  condition  in  which  it  will  enter  at  once  into 
the  circulation  of  the  plant,  there  is  no  loss  of  fertilizing 
matter.  The  crop,  fed  in  its  early  stages  of  growth,  re- 
ceives its  nutriment  in  such  quantities  and  at  such  periods 
as  will  exactly  meet  its  needs  and  force  it  into  most  luxu- 
riant growth.  In  a  dry  season  a  plant  may  starve  in  the 
most  abundantly  manured  soil ;  but  when  the  manure  is 
offered  to  it  in  a  liquid  form,  and  in  copious  supply,  the 
growth  is  continuous  and  vigorous.  A  raj^idly  growing 
plant  has  the  power  to  extract  from  the  soil  far  more  nu- 
triment than  a  weakly  plant  possesses,  and  the  stimulu? 
afforded  to  a  crop  in  its  early  stages  enables  the  strong 
roots  to  penetrate  far  and  wide  in  search  of  food,  and  the 
vigorous  foliage  is  able  to  assimilate  the  abundant  nutri- 
ment with  rapidity  as  fast  as  it  is  supplied. 

Every  cultivator  of  the  soil  knows  that  a  good  start  is 
the  making  of  a  crop,  and  this  is  precisely  what  is  secur- 
ed by  liquid  manuring.  Therefore  the  solid  manure  may 
be  used  simply  as  the  material  from  which  to  manufacture, 
by  the  help  of  all  the  needed  rain  or  other  water,  as 
abundant  a  supply  of  liquid  as  may  be.  To  extract  all 
the  soluble  portion  of  the  manure  is  the  object,  and  w^hat 
is  left  may  be  reserved  to  answer  the  purpose  of  top- 
dressing  or  mulching  the  soil  in  winter  time,  or  of  adding 
to  its  stock  of  slowly  decomposing  organic  matter  for 
future  crops.  It  will  be  profitable  therefore  to  adopt 
such  a  complete  system  of  drains,  tanks,  and  pumps,  as 
will  save  every  portion  of  waste  from  stable  or  manure- 
heaps,  all  the  water  that  may  fall  upoi.  the  roofs  and 
sheds,  and  occasionally  pump  up  the  contents  of  the 
cisterns  and  force  them  to  filter  back  again  through  the 


MANURE    TANK. 


67 


heaps  of  decomposing  manure.  At  the  same  time  such 
accessory  fertilizers  as  gypsum,  the  various  ammoniacal 
salts,  or  soluble  phosphates,  or  such  deodorizing  or  fixin'^ 
elements  as  sulpliuric  acid,  largely  diluted,  may  he  added 
to  the  solution  to  increase  its  efBciency. 

The  construction  of  the  tanks  will  be  here  the  chief 
consideration.  These,  where  the  means  are  not  am])le, 
may  be  of  the  rudest  character  consistent  witli  the  ability 
to  hold  and  retain  water,  but  otherwise  they  should  be 
constructed  with  a  view  to  permanence  and  economy  of 
use.  A  cheap  and  simple  tank,  of  which  a  section  is 
shown  in  fig.  30,  may  be  made  as  follows  :   A  pit  or  vat. 


iM,-.  ;si). 


-I.lgril)    MAM  i;i':   TANK. 


d,  is  dug  and  cemented  with  water-lime  or  lined  with 
plank  so  as  to  be  perfectly  water-tight.  This  vat  is  cover- 
ed with  a  plank  floor,  through  which  a  wooden  pump 
passes,  and  rests  upon  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  The  size 
of  the  vat  of  course  will  correspond  with  what  is  required 
of  it.  A  useful  size  for  a  market  garden,  or  for  a  farm 
Avhere  a  few  acres  of  soiling  crops  are  raised  each  year,  will 
be  10  feet  square  and  8  feet  deep.  At  the  end  of  the  vat 
anotlier  excavation  is  made  sulTicicntly  large  to  contain 
the  pile  of  manure  or  materials  for  a  conipo.'^t  that  can  be 
gathered  and  used.     This  excavation,  seen  id  1,  may  bo 


I? 


68  IRRIGATION. 

24  to  30  feet  long,  as  wide  as  the  vat,  and  gradually  in« 
creasing  in  depth  from  3  or  4  feet  at  the  further  end, 
to  6  or  8  inches  more  at  the  end  connecting  with  the 
vat.  The  excavation  should  be  floored  with  double  boards, 
with  a  coating  of  asphalt  or  tar  between  them,  and  the 
sides  cemented.  A  coarse  grating  of  stout  poles  or  tim- 
bers are  laid  across  tliis  shallow  portion  of  the 
vat,  and  is  supported  in  the  center  by  blocks  or 
slnn-t  posts  placed  at  intervals  beneath  it. 
Smaller  poles  or  rails  are  laid  upon  these  tim- 
bers not  more  than  6  or  8  inches  apart. 

Upon  these  poles  the  manure  is  piled  in  a 
flat  heap,  made  hollow  or  dishing  at  the  top, 
so  as  to  collect  all  the  water  that  may  fall  upon 
it.  The  heap  need  not  be  more  than  five  feet 
high,  which  is  sufficient  to  cause  an  active  fer- 
mentation to  be  kept  up  through  the  whole  of 
it.  The  materials  of  which  this  heap  is  com- 
posed will  include  e-^very  thing  of  a  mineral  or 
organic  character  useful  for  manure,  that  can 
be  procured.  Stable  manure,  straw,  marsh  hay, 
weeds,  sawdust,  peat  muck,  leaves,  woods- 
earth,  night  soil,  leather  scraps,  tanner's  waste, 
butcher's  offal,  lime,  ashes,  plaster,  and  bone 
dust,  and  the  skillful  operator  will  add  from 
time  to  time  such  chemical  substances  as  he 
needs  to  enrich  the  compost.  There  need  be 
no  fear  of  losing  ammonia  by  adding  lime.  The 
lime  is  needed  for  the  rapid  decomposition  of 
the  manure,  and  the  water  added  every  day  or  two  to 
the  heap  will  seize  upon  every  jiarticle  of  ammonia 
formed  and  carry  it  into  the  tank,  where  it  may  be 
fixed  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  or  gypsum. 
The  water  in  the  vat  should  be  frequently  pumped  out 
for  use,  and  a  fresh  supply  poured  upon  the  heap.  A 
pump  that  will  net  renclily  be  choked  should  be  used. 


PUMP   FOR   LIQirrD   MANTTRE.  69 

One  with  a  collapsing  bucket,  with  leather  sides  and 
of  a  conical  form,  shown  in  fig.  31,  is  the  most  useful. 
The  waste  water  from  the  roofs  might  be  dischartred 
upon  the  heap  by  a  simple  arrangement  of  spouts.  The 
object  desired,  viz.,  to  gather  every  soluble  part  of  the 
manure  into  the  vat,  should  be  forwarded  by  every  possi- 
ble means. 

A  small  and  cheap  tank  suitable  for  use  where  the  liquid 
manure  from  the  stables  and  dwellings  may  be  collected 
for  distribution,  may  be  excavated  and  lined  with  brick, 
and  should  be  cir-cular  with  an  arched  roof  ;  if  made  12 
feet  deep  and  10  feet  in  diameter,  it  will  contain  6,500 
gallons,  or  sufficient  to  irrigate  an  acre  with  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  a  quart  to  every  square  foot. 

Many  other  forms  of  tanks  may  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  capacious  one  may  be  constructed  as  follows  : 
A  circular  pit  24  feet  in  diametc  and  8  or  10  feet  deep  is 
excavated.  The  bottom  and  sides  may  be  cemented  or 
lined  with  bricks  laid  in  cement.  A  pillar  of  brick  is 
built  in  the  center,  and  a  brick  arch  may  be  sprung  from 
the  pillar  to  the  wall  around  it,  or  beams  may  be  laid 
from  the  wall  to  the  pillar,  centering  at  the  pillar,  and  a 
plank  floor  may  be  laid  above  them.  A  wide  spout  or 
throat  leading  from  the  manure  heap  may  carry  the  liquid 
into  the  tank,  and  the  drain  pipes  from  the  stables  and 
dwelling  may  be  male  to  discharge  into  it.  An  en- 
graving of  this  tank  is  given  on  j  age  37.  Many  ob- 
vious modifications  of  this  plan  will  occur  to  the  reader. 

The  distribution  of  liquid  manure  may  be  made,  as  al- 
ready descriljcd,  througli  pipes  or  open  furrows,  or  by 
means  of  irrigating  carts  or  barrows.  The  use  of  carts 
will  be  found  to  require  a  very  small  outlay  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  to  be  much  more  satisfactory  than  would  ai)])ear 
at  first  sight.  "Where  tlie<lista(iee  to  which  thenuunire  has 
to  be  carted  is  within  400  fret,  which  would  be  from  the 
center  to  the  outside  limits  of  a  sfpuire  of  about  15  acres. 


70 


IRKlGATIOir. 


carts  woiild  be  the  cheapest  method  of  applying  the  liquid. 
One  acre  an  hour  could  be  easily  watered  by  a  one-horse 
cart,  furnished  with  a  spreader  six  feet  long,  that  would 
cover  a  width  on  tlie  ground  of  about  eight  feet.  If 
the  crop  is  grown  in  drills  two  feet  apart,  the  horse  would 
occupy  one  drill,  each  wheel  of  the  cart  one  drill  upon 
each  side,  and  the  spreader  would  cover  half  a  drill  upon 


I.IQUID   M.VNUUE    CAKT. 


each  side  ;  thus  four  drills  would  be  watered  at  each 
passage.  If  the  drills  are  three  or  four  feet  apart,  three 
or  two  are  watered  at  each  passage.  In  this  way  one  acre 
would  be  watered  at  an  expense  of  about  50  cents,  allow- 
in  o-  $5  for  the  cost  of  the  necessary  horse,  two  watering 
carts,  and  two  men.  Two  carts  pre  needed,  as  one  would 
be  filling  while  the  other  is  spreading.  The  cart  may  be 
a  large  cask  holding  at  least  200  gallons,  mounted  upon 
wheels  with  a  pair  of  shafts,  the  axle  being  bent  to  keep 
the  load  low  down,  and  a  distributing  pipe  perforated  with 
holeg,  and  curved  forward  at  the  ends.  Instead  of  a  bar- 
rel a  square  tank  mounted  upon  wheels  may  be  used,  see 


MANTRE  CARTS. 


71 


fig.  32.  The  supply  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  "ball-valve 
attached  to  a  Avire,  whicli  is  pulled  by  the  driver  when 
the  valve  is  to  be  opened,  this  is  shown  at  fig.  33. 

For  the  irrigation  of  smaller  gardens  a  hand-barrow, 
with  a  distributor  as  shown  at 
fig.  34,  or  with  a  small  force- 
pump  and  sprinkler  attached, 
would  be  useful.  It  would 
serve  in  cases  where  no  more 
than  an  acre  can  be  appropri- 
ated for  garden  and  for  fodder 
crops  to  support  a  single  cow 
or  horse,  as  in  thousands  of  in- 
stances which  occur  in  \'illage  dwellings  or  the  suburbs  of 
cities  and  towns.  By  cultivating  small  tracts  of  an  acre  or 
less  upon  this  system,  the  domestic  supply  of  vegetables 


33. — VALVE  FOR  DISTRIB- 
UTtNG   TANK. 


.      Fig.    34. — HAND-BAKROW. 

maybe  easily  raised,  together  witli  am]ilo  support  for  one 
cow.  It  is  the  vast  number  of  such  cases  as  this  to  which  a 
system  of  irrigation  may  be  a))])lied,  that  an  aggregate  of 
benefit  may  be  derived  that  will  almost  l)alance  in  indi- 
vidual comfort  and  ndvantairc  the  more  conspicuous  but 
less  numerous  systems  of  field  and  farm  irrigation.    There 


72  IRRIGATION', 

are  probably  two  or  three  millions  of  individuals  to  whose 
small  occupations  this  system  may  be  applied  with  a  result 
equaling  at  least  a  net  amount  of  1100  per  year,  in  each 
case.  The  material  that  might  be  utilized,  in  most  cases 
now  goes  to  waste  or  serves  to  vitiate  the  air  and  poison 
the  surrounding  neighborhood.  By  thus  turning  it  to 
account,  a  benefit  to  the  public  health  incalculable  in  dol- 
lars and  cents  would  result,  and  at  the  above  reasonable 
estimate  a  vast  addition  to  the  wealth  and  comfort  of  the 
people  besides. 

A  plan  for  utilizing  liquid  manure  upon  gardens  or 
farms  so  situated  as  to  surface  that  the  manure  may  be 
spread  by  gravitation,  or  flowed  in  furrows  from  a  drain 
issuing  from  the  barn  cellar,  or  from  a  tank  in  the  barn- 
yard, was  described  by  Col.  G.  E.  Waring,  jr. ,  of  Ogden 
Farm,  Newport,  E.  I.,  in  the  American  Agriculturist, 
September,  1873.  Mr.  Waring  taking  his  cue  from  the 
method  of  utilizing  the  sewage  of  towns  upon  some  Eng- 
lish farms  says:  "A  very  important  lesson  for  many 
American  farmers  may  be  gleaned  from  the  English  ex- 
periments in  the  use  of  sewage  as  manure. 

"  Mr.  Mechi,  a  well  known  English  farmer,  still  adheres 
to  his  old  system  of  converting  his  manure  (or  much  of 
it)  into  a  liquid  form,  storing  it  in  a  large  tank  where  it 
ferments,  and  forcing  it  (by  steam-power)  through  under- 
ground iron  pipes  for  distribution  over  the  land  tlirough 
a  hose.  This  svstem  is  not  generally  considered  either 
economical  or  advantageous.  The  plan  adopted  with  sew- 
age, in  all  cases  which  came  to  my  notice,  is  that  describ- 
ed as  in  use  at  Lord  Warwick's  farm  near  Leamington. 

''While  our  climate  precludes  the  possibility  of  using 
winter  sewage  in  this  way,  we  might,  in  some  cases,  make 
profitable  use  of  summer  sewage  if  we  could  get  it  with- 
out too  much  cost.  What  most  interests  us  in  the  matter, 
is  the  suggestion  that  wo  may  adopt  a  similar  means  for 
the  use  of  water  as  a  distributing  medium  for  manure. 


ARRANGEMENT   FOR   MANURE   CELLAR. 


73 


f^."^ 


''I  will  take  as  an  example  my  own  case  at  Ogden  Farm, 
and  will  assume  that  I  had  (which  is  not  true)  a  stream 
of  water  at  a  sufSciently  high  level  to  be  led  into  the  bara 
cellar  (40x100),  which  has  a  capacity  of  about  200,000 
gallons.     This  should  ordinarily  be  kept  nearly  full  of 
water,  and  into  it  all  manure  should  daily  be  thrown. 
Care  must  be  taken   to  ventilate  the  cellar  thoroughly 
with  side  windows,  and  to  have  the  stable  floor  above  it 
quite  tight.     An   arrangement 
should  be   made    to  turn   the 
stream  into  the  cellar,  or  back 
again  into  its  own  channel  at 
will.     Whenever    manure    was 
required  for  that  part  of  the 
farm   lying  low  enough  to   be 
flooded  from  the  cellar  (about 
one  half  of  the  whole),  the  gate 
should  be   oponed  and  the  liq- 
uid conducted  to  the  field  by 
the    system    explained    below. 
At  the  same  time  enough  wa- 
ter should  be   admitted  from 
the  brook  to  keep  up  the  head 
in    the    cellar.      Tliis,    by    its         ^^^-  35. -escape  pipe. 
flow,  would  make  a  movement  in  the  mass  sufficient  to 
stir  up   the   sediment    and    foul    the   outgoing  water. 
The   irrigation   should  be   as  frequent   and   as  co})ious 
as   the   supply  of   water  would   allow,  and   as  the  best 
growth   of  the  crops  required.     The  water  alone  would 
be    very  beneficial,    and  it  would   only   be   stronger  or 
weaker   according  to  the  extent   to   which    it   was   em- 
ployed.    Of  one  thing  we  might  be  quite  sure  ;   all  the 
manure  it  contained  would  be  distributed  in  tlie   most 
perfect  way  possible,  and  there  could  be  no  waste.     The 
water  would  be  an  addition  to  its  value— there  would  be 
no  deduction  in  any  way.     A  vast  amount  of  labor  would 


u 


IIIRIGATION-. 


be  saved,  and  the  manure  would  be  applied  at  the  right 
time,  in  the  right  way,  and  on  the  right  spot. 

"  The  winter  manure  should  be  hauled,  as  it  now  is,  on 
the  higher  parts  of  the  farm — no  water  being  admitted 
to  the  cellar  at  this  season.  When  the  growing  season 
came  on,  then  the  crops  of  the  lower  parts  would  get  the 
benefit  of  the  irrigation.  How  great  a  benefit  this  would 
be  to  grass  land  in  time  of  drouth  need  only  be  suggested. 

"The  accompanying  sketches  will  show  the  arrange- 
ments to  be  made  at  Ogden  Farm,  and  will  indicate  a 


a 


MANURE  CELLAR 
WEST  END 


JL2_ 


C-3 


Fig.    36. — DRIVEWAY. 

plan  which,  with  such  modifications  as  circumstances  re- 
quire, may  be  adopted  for  the  irrigation  of  any  land  with 
sufficient  slope. 

*'Fior.  35  shows  a  corner  of  the  manure-cellar  with  an 
escape  pip9  (valved)  leading  from  the  very  bottom — al- 
lowing the  cellar  to  be  drained  dry  at  pleasure.  In  front 
of  the  entrance  to  this  pipe  a  screen  of  iron  rods  or  wooden 
slats,  reaching  vertically  from  floor  to  ceiling,  prevents 
solid  matters  and  litter  from  choking  the  pipe.  If  this 
becomes  clogged,  it  can  be  cleared  with  a  rake  through 
a  trap-door  in  the  floor  above.  This  pipe  should  be  used 
only  when  the  water  will  not  flow  at  the  outlets  above. 

*'  Fig.  36  shows  the  arrangement  at  the  west  end  of  the 


DISTRIBUTION?   FROM   THE    CELLAR. 


75 


cellar,  with  an  overflow  pipe  to  the  nortli  and  one  to  the 
south.  The  drive-way  siiould  be  dammed  up  to  raise  the 
water  to  the  level  of  these  pipes. 

"  Fig.  37  shows  tlie  arrangement  for  the  distribution  of 
the  flow.     A  main  furrow  runs  from  a  and  x  to  d.     This 


/,--' 


^^  \ 


-" 

^1 

w*"" 

U,.^"" 

_,\ 

^^•^"^^ 

^^    ^^' 

_JX--' 

A 

__,-"'"' 

^^      >■ 

5-""''" 

J^-"'" 

'     ^'^^*'' 

^^^ 

\' 

r.-''" 

11-- 

u 


^At'%"^ 


Fij^.  37. — PLAN   OF  FORUOWS  FOR  DISTRIBUTION. 

is  the  general  direction  of  the  slope  of  the  land.  The 
laterals  1  to  18  are  furrows  laid  on  a  fall  of  1  incb  in  lOU 
feet.  They  will  not  be  straight,  but  must  follow  the  con- 
formation of  the  ground,  so  as  to  preserve  a  uniform  fall. 
The  main  furrow  at  rr  may  be  supplied  either  Iroiu  (^/or 
from  c,  and  others  from  h,  as  in  figs.  36  and  ;}7. 

"  The  flow  being  let  on,  and  kcjit  up  by  a  corresponding 
flow  into  the  cellar  from  the  brook,  it  should  pass  on  to 


78  IRRIGATION. 

the  end  of  18.  (The  main  furrow  is  a  little  deeper  than 
the  entrance  to  the  laterals.)  Here  it  will  overflow  the 
land  lying  below  so  much  of  the  lateral  as  is  beyond  y. 
Then  a  gate  should  be  set  at  y,  and  kept  there  until  tiie 
land  below  the  lateral  between  that  point  and  z  has  been 
sufficiently  flooded.  Then  remove  the  gate  to  z.  When 
all  the  land  below  lateral  18  has  had  its  supply,  set  a  gate 
in  the  main  Just  below  17,  and  repeat  the  process  witli 
■hat.  When  the  south  side  of  the  farm  has  been  com- 
pleted, the  gate  is  taken  from  the  main  and  the  water 
allowed  to  flow  to  the  end  of  No.  9. 

*'  Nos.  1,  2,  10,  and  11  can  be  flushed  only  from  outlets 
a  and  b.     All  the  others  are  low  enough  for  c. 

*'0f  course,  any  portion  of  the  land  may  be  flooded  at 
pleasure,  the  directions  above  being  given  only  as  an 
illustration." 

The  scope  for  the  employment  of  such  methods  as 
these  suggested  in  this  chapter  is  far  from  narrow.  The 
profitable  employment  of  liquid  manure  upon  gardens 
and  small  farms  upon  which  the  crops  grown  are  of  high 
comparative  value,  cannot  be  doubted.  It  remains  only 
that  the  lead  in  introducing  it  be  taken  by  some  enter- 
prising but  cautious  man,  in  each  neighborhood,  whose 
success  would  stimulate  hundreds  of  others  to  follow  his 
example.  It  is  probably  too  soon  to  more  than  hint  to- 
wards the  use  of  liquid  manure  upon  farms  in  this  coun- 
try, or  the  utilization  of  the  sewage  matter  of  towns  and 
cities.  This  can  only  be  done  with  profit  when  the  high 
value  of  lands  bears  some  proportion  to  the  cost  of  the 
necessary  machinery.  But  upon  gardens,  especially  mar- 
ket gardens,  and  upon  highly  cultivated  farms  where 
heavy  fodder  crops  are  grown,  and  the  soil  is  abundantly 
manured,  and  where  the  closest  economy  in  the  saving 
and  use  of  manure  is  practiced,  much  may  be  done  in  this 
way.  The  author  has  had  practical  experience  in  the  use 
of   liquid  manure — in  gardens,  and  in  growing  fodder 


SOILING    CnOPS.  77 

crops,  to  be  used  for  soiling  dairy  cows — and  is  firmly 
convinced  that,  with  ordinary  care  and  ingenuity,  the 
crops  may  be  quadrupled,  and  the  profit  doubled.  For 
instance  a  clover  crop  that  would  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances be  ready  to  cut  for  soiling  only  in  June  has,  by 
weekly  irrigating  with  li(pnd  manure,  been  made  ready 
early  in  May,  and  by  more  frequent  watering  has  been 
cut  four  times  before  the  first  of  July,  or  once  every  two 
weeks  after  the  first  cutting,  at  a  cost,  for  each  watering, 
of  not  more  than  50  cents  per  acre.  Each  cutting  of  the 
crop  at  least  equalled  an  ordinary  yield,  or  one  ton  and  a 
hal-f  of  hay  per  acre. 

As  to  the  value  of  the  system  as  applied  to  market 
gardens  for  the  production  of  such  crops  as  onions,  cab- 
bages, cauliflowers,  and  the  smaller  vegetables,  in  which 
flavor,  tenderness,  and  succulence  are  only  secured  by 
rapid  growth,  there  can  be  no  better  proof  tlian  the  suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  the  small  farms  of  Belgium,  a  coun- 
try which  supports  the  densest  population  in  Europe,  or 
of  the  market  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of  many  French, 
Italian  and  English  cities  and  towns.  In  these  localities 
the  solid  and  liquid  refuse  is  gathered  with  the  greatest 
care,  mixed  so  as  to  be  readily  used,  and  applied  to  the 
crops,  which,  under  this  treatment,  possess  a  size  and  qual- 
ity that  is  never  cfiualled  in  this  country,  except  by  a  few 
premium  vegetables  that  are  grown  in  this  same  manner. 
To  have  seen  this  demonstrated  in  the  gardens  and  in  the 
markets  of  European  cities  and  in  isolated  cases  in  this 
country,  is  sufficient  proof,  at  least,  to  induce  American 
cultivators  to  attempt  to  utilize  in  this  most  effective  man- 
ner this  most  effective  fertilizer. 


78  IREIGATION. 

CHAPTERVIII. 

CULTURE    OF    IRRIGATED    GARDEN    CROPS. 

There  are  a  few  imj^ortant  leading  principles  involved 
in  the  practice  of  irrigating  gardens  that  should  he  well 
considered.  These  will  be  referred  to  in  the  order  of 
their  importance. 

Drainage. — It  is  rarely  that  a  well  drained  soil  can  be 
injured  by  a  copious  supply  of  water  ;  but  one  that  is  not 
drained  may  easily  be  turned  into  a  quagmire  by  an  excess 
of  it.  Drainage,  therefore,  should  be  the  first  thing  pro- 
vided before  this  method  of  cultivation,  let  it  be  com- 
plete or  partial  only,  is  attempted.  If  the  soil  is  not 
naturally  drained  by  means  of  an  open  and  porous  sub- 
soil of  sand  or  gravel,  tile  drains  should  be  laid  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  in  the  most 
effective  manner. 

The  method  of  drainage  will  dejDend  upon  the  system 
of  irrigation  adopted.  If  the  bedding  plan  is  used,  as 
illustrated  in  fig.  7,  page  42,  the  drains  should  be  laid 
between  the  beds,  and  beneath  the  drain  furrows,  as 
shown  in  fig.  37,  in  which  the  open  spaces  seen  at  a,  a, 
represent  the  drain.  These  drains  should  be  of  inch  tde, 
laid  three  feet  below  the  surface.  If  laid  at  a  less  depth 
there  is  danger  that  the  roots  of  some  varieties  of  plants 
may  penetrate  between  the  crevices  and  choke  the  tiles. 
Where  the  arrangement  of  the  water-furrows  is  such  as  to 
need  change  every  year,  or  such  as  is  shown  in  figures  15, 
17,  or  23,  the  method  of  drainage  should  be  the  ordinary 
one  of  inch  tiles  laid  24  feet  apart,  if  the  soil  is  heavy  ; 
or  30  feet  if  of  a  lighter  character,  and  leading  into  main 
drains  of  two  or  three  inch  tile.  Surface  draining  would 
be  a  very  unsatisfactory  resource,  and  should  be  adopted 
only  wher3  t'.iC  crops  would  resist  the  effects  of  a  very 


DRAINS.  ^  79 

cool,  moist  soil,  or  upon  inclined  ground  where  there 
would  be  no  danger  of  saturation.  Whatever  the  ar- 
rangement ot'  water  supply  nuiy  be,  the  plan  of  the  drain 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  exactly  the  reverse.  In 
effect  the  drains  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  take  up  the 
surplus  or  unused  water  and  carry  it  off  as  rapidly  as 
possible  ;  at  the  same  time  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
permit  the  water  to  flow  into  the  drains  until  it  has  done 
its  duty,  nor  to  use  so  much  water  that  the  soil  may  be 
carried  into  the  drains  and  these  be  soon  filled  witli  sedi- 
ment. No  drain  should  be  carried  beneath  a  canal  or 
distributing  furrow,  unless  it  cannot  be  avoided,  and  then 
never  at  a  less  depth  than  three  feet,  else  a  channel  of 
communication  may  be  opened  between  them  and  the 
water  escape,  and,  what  is  worse,  wash  the  soil  into  the 
drains  and  render  them  useless.  Further  remarks  upon 
drainage  will  be  found  in  a  succeeding  chapter  where 
field  irrigation  is  treated,  and  wliich  may  be  referred  to. 

Cultivation  or  Disturhance  of  the  Soil. — The  soil  should 
never  be  disturbed  while  it  is  wet.  The  operations  of 
hoeing,  cultivating,  weeding,  sowing,  or  gathering  the 
mature  crops,  should  be  so  timed  with  reference  to  the 
watering,  or  the  watering  should  be  so  timed  with  refer- 
ence to  them,  that  these  operations  may  ])e  performed 
when  the  soil  is  dry  and  Just  before  the  watering.  If 
after  the  watering,  upon  soils  liable  to  ''bake,"  or  be- 
come encrusted,  the  surface  under  the  effects  of  a  hot 
sun  becomes  hard,  the  crust  should  be  broken -up  by  cul- 
tivation before  it  has  time  to  completely  harden. 

The  Application  of  Water. — It  is  not  well  to  put  off 
the  watering  until  the  ground  is  very  dry,  but  to  apply 
the  water  while  the  soil  i.i  still  somewhat  moist  and  mel- 
low ;  it  is  then  more  absorptive,  and  tlie  after  effects 
upon  the  worst  of  soils,  as  regards  l)aking,  will  be 
less  troublesome.     The  soil  should  be  moderately  watered 


80  IRRIGATION. 

a  day  or  two  before  seed  is  sown  or  plants  are  transplant- 
ed, tliat  it  may  be  in  a  finely  pulverulent  cundition,  and 
wiien  the  supply  of  water  is  always  under  the  control  of 
the  operator  there  is  no  danger  in  sprouting  the  seed  and 
thus  hastening  germination.  After  sowing  or  trans- 
planting, the  chief  care  should  be  to  water  only  very 
moderately,  and  never  allow  the  water  to  flow  over  the 
seed  or  plant  rows,  lest  the  surface  should  become  hard 
and  need  stirring,  and  the  young  plants  be  endangered  by 
one  or  the  other  of  these  alternatives.  Moderate,  frequent 
waterings  are  best  for  young,  growing  plants.  There  is 
far  greater  danger  of  giving  too  much  rather  than  too 
little  water  at  this  time.  During  early  growth  the  appli- 
cation of  water  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  of  the 
soil  is  injurious.  For  this  reason,  when  well-water  is 
used,  it  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  in  open  tanks  or 
reservoirs  for  at  least  one  day  before  it  is  used.  For  the 
same  reason  watering  during  a  clear  sunny,  or  a  windy 
day  is  to  be  avoided,  and  it  should  only  be  done  in  the 
evenings,  or  when  the  sun  is  obscured  with  clouds.  The 
effect  of  wind  is  to  increase  the  evaporation,  and  thus 
reduce  the  temperature  of  the  soil  immediately  after  its 
saturation.  The  quantity  of  water  to  be  applied  will 
depend  upon  several  circumstances  that  have  already  been 
referred  to.  For  garden  crops,  frequent  moderate  water- 
ings are  preferable,  and  intervals  of  five  days  are  usually 
allowed.  The  soil  is  then  kept  constantly  moist,  and  the 
growth  of  the  crops  continuous.  Of  course  when  rain 
falls,  a  sufficient  allowance  must  be  made,  but,  judging 
from  the  quantities  of  water  that  may  be  safely  applied 
to  crops  in  the  market  garden,  unless  the  rain  is  unusual- 
ly heavy  and  continuous,  it  may  safely  be  ignored.  The 
quantities  used  in  garden  culture  in  different  countries, 
as  mentioned  in  many  works  upon  irrigation,  are  exceed- 
ingly irregular.  It  would  seem  as  though  the  abundance 
•of  water,  and  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  measured  the  sup- 


CKOPS.  81 

ply,  rather  than  the  needs  of  the  crop.  Thus  quantities 
varying  from  a  total  depth,  during-  the  growing  season,  of 
50  up  to  over  300  inches  upon  the  surface,  have  been  used 
without  any  ill  effect  when  the  drainage  has  been  perfect. 
Exi3erieuce  can  be  the  only  safe  guide  ;  the  thorough 
soaking  of  the  soil  at  intervals  of  five  days,  should  be  the 
limit  of  the  irrigation,  aud  the  quantity "^of  water  needed 
to  effect  this  will  be  the  maximum  supply  required. 
When  economy  of  water  is  a  point  to  be  considered,  as  it 
must  needs  be  when  every  pint  of  it  is  elevated  by  power, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  watch  the  flow  in  the  distributing 
furrows  and  prevent  any  escapes  into  pools  and  surface 
drains,  and  such  copious  watering  as  would  lc:ive  water 
standing  in  the  furrows  for  more  than  an  hour  or  two 
after  the  flow  has  been  stopped.  This  must  be  regulated 
by  the  judgment  of  the  irrigator  acting  through  a  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  involved. 

THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    VARIOUS    CROPS. 

Where  the  climate  admits  of  it  a  succession  of  crops  of 
garden  vegetables  may  be  grown  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  variations  of  the  seasons  practically  removed. 
In  tl)e  climate  of  California  this  is  easily  done  by  niians 
of  irrigation  there  practiced,  and  in  most  of  our  Southern 
States  the  season  of  growth  may  be  extended,  and  in 
some  maybe  continue  1  throughout  the  year,  if  the  supply 
of  water  is  only  secured.  This  is  one  of  the  great  ad- 
vantages of  a  system  of  irrigation,  by  which  every  where 
a  succession  of  crops,  more  or  less  extended,  may  be  se- 
cured. The  general  management  of  the  principal  garden 
crops  will  be  briefly  indicated. 

Aspiraju^. — Tho  most  convenient  method  of  cultivating 
this  crop  is  by  "  floors,"  (see  fig.  0,  p.  43),  over  which 
a  thin  sheet  of  water  may  be  flowed  from  a  furrow  at  the 
head  towards  another  at  the  foot,  from  wliich  the  water 
may  be  a^ain  flowed  Qver  anpther  floor  below  tljo  iir>it. 


82  lEEIGATIOiT. 

This  arrangement  makes  it  necessary  that  the  ground 
should  sloi^e  slightly  in  one  direction.  The  method  of 
watering  by  pipes  laid  upon  the  surface,  or  by  hydrants, 
which  have  been  already  described,  may  easily  be  applied 
to  the  culture  of  this  vegetable.  This  crop  is  one  that 
needs  but  very  moderate  irrigation. 

Beans. — This  crop  requires  to  be  planted  in  beds,  ar- 
ranged as  shown  in  figs.  7  and  8,  and  can  be  cultivated  in 
long  succession  by  means  of  irrigation.  It  Avill  stand  a  good 
deal  of  moisture,  especially  when  grown  to  use  green  as 
*'  snap  beans  "  which  should  be  fresh  and  succulent.  The 
periods  of  irrigation  should  be  at  intervals  of  five  to 
seven  days.     Lima  beans  need  equally  frequent  waterings. 

Corn. — This  is  a  plant  which  needs  much  moisture, 
and  the  watering  may  be  both  copious  and  frequent.  It 
may  be  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  in  either  case  the  system 
of  beds  or  of  alternate  drills  and  furrows,  which  are  fed 
from  a  distributing  canal  at  the  head  of  the  bed  or  drills, 
may  be  used. 

Cabhage.  — This  crop  is  cultivated  in  beds  to  which  the 
water  is  supplied  by  furrows,  made  with  the  hoe  after 
each  cultivation.  It  is  a  greedy  feeder  and  responds 
quickly  co  the  application  of  liquid  manure.  Heads  of 
enormous  size  have  been  thus  grown,  and  specimens  of 
60  pounds  in  weight  have  been  frequently  exhibited  that 
were  produced  by  irrigation  with  liquid  manure.  It 
will  submit  without  complaint  to  much  moisture  if  the 
soil  is  cool ;  how  it  would  lichave  under  our  hot  suns, 
when  stimulated  by  excessive  irrigation,  is  something 
that  is  yet  to  bo  learned.  In  Florida,  however,  it  thrives 
well  when  supplied  with  sufficient  moisture  ;  in  central 
Europe,  where  the  market  rjardener  irrigates  all  his  crops, 
the  cabbage  is  only  moderately  watered,  doubtless  lest  it 
might  be  stimulated  to  run  to  seed  ;  but  where  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  climate  are  favorable,  and  abun- 


CEOPS.  83 

dance  of  water  is  procurable,  there  the  cabbage,  as  well  as 
the  cuuliiluwer,  is  cxteusively  cultivated  not  only  for  home 
coiisamption  but  for  shipiueut  abroad  to  distant  couu- 
trics.  This  is  the  case  in  Belgium,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Erfurt,  (Germany,)  whero  both  of  these  crops  are 
cultivated  with  success  and  profit,  une(|ualed  elsewhere. 
There  the  mathod  of  culture  is  to  choose  a  low  spot  of 
ground  and  divide  it  into  bods  of  convenient  shajie,  which 
are  separated  by  permanent  furrows,  in  which  the  water 
flows.  The  water  is  sometimes  dipped  from  these  fur- 
rows by  long-handled  scoops  and  poured  around  the  roots 
of  the  plants.  Otherwise  the  water  is  flowed  on  to  the 
crops  by  means  of  small  furrows  between  slightly  raised 
ridges  upon  which  the  i^lants  are  grown. 

Beets. — This  crop  is  peculiarly  suited  to  culture  by  irri- 
gation. Few  crops  thrive  so  well  under  the  combined  in- 
fluence of  abundant  moisture  and  a  continued  high  tem- 
perature. The  sugar  beet,  especially,  enjoys  these  con- 
ditions when  planted  in  deeji,  well-drained  soil,  and  crops 
equal  to  from  CO  to  75  tons  of  roots  per  acre  are  fre(|uent- 
ly  grovv'n  in  the  sugar  manufacturing  districts  of  central 
and  southern  France.  A  specially  noteworthy  case  was 
cited  in  the  Journal  cf  Agriculture  by  Isl.  Barral,  in  which 
a  manufacturer  of  beet  sugar  at  Masny,  directed  the  flow 
of  water  from  the  water  wheels,  which  furnished  the 
power  for  the  factory,  on  to  the  field  of  beets.  The  Avater 
was  charged  with  all  the  refuse  of  the  works,  the  wash- 
ings of  the  roots  and  of  the  impure  bone-black,  as  well 
as  t::at  of  the  sacks  in  which  tlie  ]iulp  had  been  pressed, 
the  skimmings  of  evaporating  pans,  and  also  the  washings 
of  the  outhouses  used  l)y  the  workmen  ;  and  carried  all 
this  matter  in  suspension  through  the  channels  and  dis- 
tributing furrows  to  tlie  growing  crops.  No  otlier  fertil- 
izer 1  as  been  used  during  8  years,  and  the  value  to  the 
farm  is  csfimated  at  a  yearly  sum  of  ?"?,ono.  This 
example^  however,  rclatj3  to  fiold  cuUure,  but  is  yet 


84  IRRIGATION. 

worthy  of  note  as  showing  how  refuse  matter  may  be 
applied  in  a  similar  manner  to  garden  crops.  The  irri- 
gation of  beets,  although  it  may  be  profusely  applied 
upon  hght,  deep,  and  well  drained  soil,  must  be  done 
with  proper  moderation  upon  soils  that  are  retentive  and 
not  well  drained.  Only  so  much  water  must  be  used  as 
to  keep  the  soil  fresh,  moist,  and  mellow,  and  it  will  be 
safest  to  irrigate  such  soils  as  these  more  moderately  and 
oftener  than  those  of  a  loose,  open,  sandy  character. 

Carrots. — This  crop  has  been  found  to  thrive  exceeding- 
ly well  under  irrigation  upon  light  soils.  A  succession 
of  crops  may  be  grown  tliroughout  the  whole  summer, 
and  by  the  use  of  some  active  artificial  fertilizer,  the 
growth  is  rapid  and  remarkably  clean  and  healthy.  Upon 
clay  soils  this  and  other  deep-rooted  crops  do  not  thrive 
very  well,  and  more  shallow-rooted  crops  should  be 
chosen.  When  irrigated,  the  carrot  is  cultivated  in  rows 
upon  the  flat,  the  water  being  led  to  the  plants  in  chan- 
nels made  by  the  hoe  in  the  intervals  between  the  rows. 
It  is  very  common  in  garden  culture  to  plant  carrots  for 
a  late  crop  in  rows  between  other  and  earlier  ones,  by 
which  the  tender  young  plants  are  shaded  and  protected 
from  the  heat. 

Siueet  Potato. — This  crop  is  planted  in  broad,  flat  beds 
slightly  raised  above  the  level,  and  the  water  is  flowed  into 
the  furrow  between  the  beds.  Upon  the  light  soils,  in 
which  the  crop  succeeds  best,  the  waterings  are  given 
copiously  at  intervals  of  from  five  to  seven  days.  The 
abundant  foliage  requires  a  good  supply  of  water.  The 
system  of  rounded  or  doubly  sloping  beds,  described 
on  page  41,  in  which  the  water  is  carried  along  the  crown 
of  the  bed,  is  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  this  root. 

Onions. — This  crop  is  grown  very  successfully  under 
irrigation,  and  water  may  be  copiously  applied.  The  ex- 
cellent quality,  mild  flavor^,  and  extraordinary  size  of  the 


CROPS.  85 

Portugal  and  Italian  onions  are  due  to  their  manner  of 
growth  in  which  irrigation  is  extensively  used.  The  crop 
should  be  jjlanted  in  rows  between  which  water  is  flowed, 
in  broad,  shallow  channels  made  with  a  hoe.  The  water 
should  not  come  in  contact  with  the  bulbs,  nor  should 
the  earth  be  thrown  upon  them  in  making  the  furrow. 

Potatoes.  — To  grow  common  potatoes  under  irrigation, 
with  success,  needs  caution  and  judgment.  As  the  qual- 
ity of  the  tubers  depends  greatly  upon  the  supply  of  wa- 
ter, judiciously  regulated  with  regard  to  the  character  of 
the  soil,  some  care  must  be  exercised  as  to  the  (quantity. 
Upon  light  soils  the  water  is  given  only  at  intervals  of 
nine  or  ten  days,  and  upon  heavier  soils,  which  are  more 
retentive,  fourteen  days  elapse  between  the  waterings. 
As  soon  as  the  soil  is  sufficiently  dry  after  watering,  the 
surface  should  be  cultivated,  which  will  cause  the  moist- 
ure to  be  better  retained.  A  system  of  drills,  or  of  beds 
slightly  raised,  is  used  for  this  crop,  the  water  being  given 
in  broad,  shallow  furrows,  made  with  the  hoe  at  the  time 
of  cultivation.  When  the  plants  nearly  cover  the  ground, 
as  they  should  do  at  the  time  of  blossoming,  the  final 
watering  is  given.  No  further  cultivation  should  be  given 
after  this  period. 

Peas. — As  this  crop  is  generally  sown  in  rows  upon  a 
flat  surface,  the  mode  of  watering  should  be  suited  to 
this  method  of  planting,  and  it  may  be  either  by  a  sys- 
tem of  beds,  fig.  G,  or  of  shallow  furrows  made  between 
the  rows  with  the  hoe  at  the  time  of  cultivation.  As  this 
crop  flowers  and  seeds  during  a  lengthened  ]icrio(l,  it  may 
be  irrigated  without  regard  to  the  flowering,  care  of  course 
being  taken  to  keep  the  soil  only  in  a  healthful  state  of 
moisture. 

The  Small  Crops. — Small  crops,  such  as  lettuce,  rad- 
ishes, etc.,  are  more  conveniently  cultivated  in  beds  of 
the  form  shown  in  fiijr.  fJ,  over  the  surface  of  which  the 


86  lEBlGATiOlf. 

water  flows  or  trickles  from  a  furrow  at  the  ridgeo  The 
quality  of  all  these  small  vegetables  is  improved  by  copi- 
ous aterings,  and  a  very  profitable  succession  may  be 
procured  by  continuous  sowings,  the  growth  of  which  for 
market  or  domestic  use  may  be  hastened  and  matured  at 
pleasure. 

Garden  Fruits. — The  various  small  fruits  usually 
grown  in  gardens  may  be  greatly  increased  in  luxuriance 
of  growth,  and  by  cautious  treatment,  much  improved  in 
quality,  by  irrigation.  Over-watering,  however,  will  in- 
fallibly tend  to  deteriorate  the  quality,  if  it  does  not  even 
weaken  the  growth.  As  soon  as  the  blossom  appears 
water  should  be  withheld,  unless,  under  extraordinary  cir- 
cumstances, and  under  the  supervision  of  an  experienced 
gardener.  For  strawberries  the  bedding  system  is  pre- 
ferable, and  for  other  fruits  the  water  may  be  led  by  tem- 
porary furrows  made  with  the  hoe  around  the  roots  of 
the  bushes  or  the  vines. 

In  concluding  these  remarks  which  are  not  intended 
as  a  guide  to  an  already  practiced  and  competent  gardener, 
but  as  suggestions  to  those  who  desire  to  secure  in  a  mod- 
erate way  by  the  use  of  some  plan  of  irrigation,  that  is 
feasible  for  them,  the  full  advantages  whicli  they  can  de- 
rive from  a  family  or  market  garden,  and  which  they  so 
often  fail  to  gain,  by  reason  of  the  frequently  recurring 
drouths  ;  it  may  be  said  as  a  matter  of  caution,  that  with 
a  supply  of  water  constantly  at  hand,,  the  danger  of  using 
too  much  is  greater  than  that  of  using  too  little  ;  that 
moderately  copious  waterings  at  extended  intervals  is 
far  preferable  to  light  but  frequent  irrigation,  which 
scarcely  reaches  the  roots  and  packs  the  surface.  To 
saturate  the  soil  once  a  week,  or  every  ten  days,  will  have 
the  effect  of  forcing  out  of  it  much  of  the  air  that  is  con- 
tained in  it,  which  will  be  replaced  by  a  fresh  supply  as 
the  moisture  evaporntes  or  sinks  in  the  subsoil.  Thus 
the  soil  is  kept  loose  and  mellow,  and  the  necessary  cul- 


CROPS.  87 

tivation,  whicli  should  always  follow  the  watering,  will 
retain  this  condition  of  the  soil.  The  crops  then  are  re- 
freshed and  invigorated,  and  can  resist  a  comparatively 
long  interval  of  dry  weather.  An  excess  of  water  may 
very  easily  be  worse  than  a  severe  drouth,  for  permanent 
and  irreparable  injury  may  be  done  to  a  crop  by  Hooding 
tiie  soil  to  excess;  and  not  only  the  season's  crop  itself  be 
lost,  but  the  plants  themselves  be  seriously  damaged  and 
future  crops  be  imperiled.  With  caution  in  this  respect, 
an  adequate  sonsideration  for  the  peculiar  character  and 
needs  of  the  different  plants,  a  sufficient  regard  for  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  its  facilities  for  proper  drainage, 
whether  natural  or  artificial,  and  some  reference  to  the 
ordinary  provisions  of  nature  in  regard  to  the  supply  of 
■water,  one  can  scarcely  go  wrong  in  applying  the  practice 
of  irrigation  to  the  culture  of  any  of  our  usual  crops  of 
vegetables,  fruits,  flowers  or  shrubs.  The  general  appli- 
cation of  irrigation,  with  few  exceptions  in  this  country, 
will  be  to  make  up  for  the  short-comings  of  dry  seasons, 
in  which  the  deficient  supply  of  rain  may  be  made  up 
artificially. 


CHAPTEE    IX. 

IRRIGATING    ORCHARDS  AND    VINEYARDS. 

It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  a  single  orchard  or  vineyard  in 
the  United  States,  except  in  California,  Utah,  or  Colora- 
do, subjected  to  a  systematic  irrigation.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  country  in  the  world  in 
which  irrigation  could  bo  more  profitably  applied  to  fruit 
culture  tlian  here.  Tlie  experience  of  orchard ists  proves 
that  drouth  is  accompanied  by  destructive  attacks  of  in- 
sects. TTow  far  tlieso  depredations  might  bo  pre  von  tod 
by  irrigation  cannot  be  predicated,  but  it  is  beyond  doubt 


88  IRRIGATION. 

that  the  vigor  of  growth  that  would  result  from  a  suffici- 
ent supply  of  moisture  to  the  roots  would  greatly  mitigate 
the  effects  of  these  attacks.  The  apple  trees  that  never 
have  an  "  off-year"  are  those  grown  near  bodies  of  water. 
A  California  vineyardist  who  irrigated  his  vines  imme- 
diately raised  his  product  to  eight  tons  of  grapes  per  acre, 
and  greatly  improved  the  quality.  The  newly  planted 
orange  groves  of  Florida  are  frequently  destroyed  by 
drouth,  and  methods  of  irrigation  are  eagerly  sought  to 
render  their  culture  more  safe  and  certain. 

But  if  it  were  necessary  to  enforce  the  advantages  of 
the  irrigation  of  orchards,  abundant  evidence  could  be 
gathered  in  the  south  of  France,  Italy,  and  other  coun- 
tries of  Southern  Europe,  where  the  olive,  orange,  lime, 
almond,  fig,  apple,  and  other  orchard  trees,  as  well  as  the 
vineyards,  are  systematically  brought  under  irrigation.  As 
to  the  vine,  it  is  a  question  which  so  far  has  not  been 
thoroughly  investigated,  whether  or  not  irrigation  might 
be  made  the  means  of  vanquishing  the  destructive  phyl- 
loxera. An  experienced  vineyardist  of  Avignon  (France) 
submitted  his  vines  during  the  Winter,  which  in  that  lo- 
cality is  mild  and  free  from  severe  frosts,  to  a  lengthened 
irrigation  of  30  days,  during  which  a  depth  of  four  inches 
of  water  was  constantly  maintained  in  the  vineyard. 
This  operation  has  been  found  to  considerably  diminish 
the  injurious  effects  of  the  phylloxera,  and  to  greatly  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  vines.  This  practice  might 
be  found  somewhat  dangerous  where  early  Spring  frosts 
occur,  by  which  the  vines  brought  prematurely  into 
growth  might  suffer.  But  no  cautious  cultivator  will 
make  serious  innovations  upon  his  practice  without  pre- 
vious careful  experiment.  In  Southern  California  the 
vineyards  are  copiously  irriGrated  four  times  only — at  tlie 
starting  of  the  first  crowt-i.  at  the  blossoming,  at  the 
setting  of  the  fruit,  and  at  the  period  when  the  fruit 
commences  to  color. 


ORCHARDS. 


89 


But  without  entering  into  speculations  as  to  what 
events  might  occur,  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  orchards 
are  irrigated  with  profit ;  that  in  some  cases  they  are 
destroyed,  and  in  numberless  instances  they  are  injured 
by  a  want  of  water,  and  that  there  arc  jn-obably  few  cases 
in  which  a  supply  of  water  brought  into  the  orchard 
would  not  be  found  advantageous  and  profitable.  The 
methods  of  irrigating  orchards  are  very  simple.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  put  the  water  where  it  will  do  the  most 
good,  and  that  is  as  near  as  possible  to  the  extremities  of 
the  rootlets.  The  extent  of  the  roots  of  a  tree  bears  a 
ratio  somewhat  approaching  that  of  the  branches.     Near 


/\f  ■/ 


Kf, 


\!  i  . 


V. 


/ 


^     ^^ 


b  b 

Fig.  38. — PLAN   OF   IRRIGATING   AN  ORCIIAKD. 

the  stem  there  are  few  of  the  root-hairs  or  fine  fibers  by 
which  nutriment  is  absorbed.  These  are  found  at  the 
extremities  of  the  very  fine  rootlets,  and  these  exist  in  a 
ring  around  the  tree,  the  inner  edge  of  which  is  from  3 
to  4'|^  feet  distant  from  the  stem.  In  irrigating  an 
orchard,  then,  the  most  perfect  method  of  applying  the 
water  is  to  distribute  it  in  a  broad  circular  channel  around 
the  tree,  distant  about  six  feet  from  the  stem. 

Wliero  irricration  of  orchards  is  practiced  two  different 
plan'?  are  adoptorl.  The  first  is  a  somowliat  rude  method, 
but  is  easy  and  offoctivo.  The  water  is  k'd  into  a  channel 
between  two  rows  of  trees,  «,  h,  fig.  38,  and  from  thence 


90  IRRIGATION. 

into  distributing  canals,  c,  c,  c,  which  carry  the  water 
Avithin  a  few  feet  of  each  tree.  (The  position  of  the 
trees  in  the  figure  is  indicated  by  the  dots.)  Here  a  sharp 
bar  is  trust  into  the  ground  in  several  places,  penetrating 
in  different  directions  toward  the  roots,  and  leaving  holes 
by  which  the  water  soaks  into  the  earth  and  reaches  the 
roots.  The  second  is  a  more  elaborate  but  a  more  prefer- 
able method.  The  water  is  led  from  the  canals  into 
circular  furrows  which  curve  so  as  to  embrace  the  tree. 
(This  is  shown  at  ^,  e,  in  fig.  38.)  These  furrows  are 
broad  and  shallow,  and  the  water  overflows  from  them  in 
a  thin  sheet  or  a  multitude  of  little  rills  which  lead  to 


■^^^y. 


a  a 

Fig.  39.— FORMATION  OF   FUKROW3. 

the  lower  side  of  the  tree,  where  they  are  arrested  by 
means  of  a  slight  embankment  raised  with  the  hoe.  In 
this  case  the  water  is  brought  exactly  where  it  is  needed, 
and  every  rootlet  is  supplied.  This  is  also  seen  at  fig.  39. 
In  irrigating  vines  very  similar  methods  are  adopted. 
As  the  vines  are  planted  in  rows,  the  distributing  furrows 
are  carried  down  the  center  of  each  alternate  row,  fig.  40, 
the  ground  being  sloped  towards  the  center  of  each  in- 
termediate row,  fig.  41.  The  water  is  thus  made  to  pass 
across  each  row  of  \ines.  Beneath  the  center  of  the  in- 
termediate rows  a  tile  drain  should  be  placed  to  carry  off 
surplus  water,  and  this  brings  into  notice  the  question  of 
drainage  as  a  part  of  this  system  of  orchard  and  vineyard 


IRRIGATION*    OP    Vi?TETARDS. 


ot 


irrigation.  As  a  rule  imgation  and  drainage  should  go 
together.  Irrigation  without  drainage  will  in  most  cases 
convert  a  tract  of  land. into  a  morass.  Stagnant  water 
is  fatal  to  the  life  of  useful  vegetation,  and  it  is  here  that 
the  causes  of  the  failure  of  many  attempts  to  irrigate 


S    '^ 


Fig.  40. — PLAN   OF  IRRIGATING  A  VINETARD. 

originate.  In  arid  territories  without  rainfall,  skillful 
irrigation  will  supply  such  a  quantity  as  will  be  needed 
to  supply  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  the 
transpirations  of  the  plants.  If  more  is  given,  the  sur- 
plus must  pass  off  through  the  subsoil,  or  remaining  in  it 
will  work  mischief  to  the  crop.     But  such  an  excess  of 


Yig.  41. — FURUOWS    AND    i)KAI.\.S    KS    A    VINEYARD. 

water  can  rarely  be  procured  in  arid  districts.  On  tho 
contrary,  the  greatest  economy  must  be  exercised  in  using 
the  limited  supply,  and  waste  is  im])ossil)le. 

It   is   otherwise   in   thoso  parts  of   tho  country  where 
Partial  or  periodical  irrigation  is  used.     There  the  water 


92  iriitgatio:n'. 

supply  may  bo  copions,  and  the  skill  of  tlie  cultivator  is 
to  be  exercised  in  conveying  to  bis  field  only  so  much  a^ 
may  be  serviceable  and  no  more.  But  to  liit  the  just 
mean  is  a  matter  of  difficulty,  if  not  impossibility,  for 
several  reasons.  For  safety,  therefore,  in  these  cases  a 
system  of  drainage  is  imperatively  needed.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  in  orchards  and  vineyards  which  are  subject 
to  so  many  varieties  of  blight  and  mildew,  and  other  dis- 
eases which  have  their  origin  in  atmospheric  or  meteoro- 
logical conditions.  Except  in  very  rare  cases,  then,  it  will 
be  imperative  that  a  tile  or  other  drain  be  laid  in  the  sub- 
soil at  least  four  feet  beneath  the  surface,  between  every 
two  rows  of  distributing  canals.  This  will  remove  the 
danger  of  injuring  the  plantation  by  excessive  watering. 
The  position  of  the  drains  is  shown  by  the  dark  lines,  /, 
/,  /,  in  figs.  38  and  40,  and  by  the  small  rings  a,  a,  beneath 
the  surface  in  figs.  39,  41. 

The  roots  of  trees  seek  out  and  follow  a  supply  of  water 
with  great  avidity.  Drain  pipes  in  orchards  and  gardens 
have  been  frequently  penetrated  by  the  roots  of  the  trees 
and  completely  choked  by  a  dense  mass  of  fibers,  eagerly 
appropriating  the  water  found  therein.  For  this  reason 
the  drainage  of  orchards  by  tiles  is  a  somewhat  hazardous 
business.  To  irrigate  the  soil  of  an  orchard  would  tend 
to  keep  the  roots  near  the  surface  where  they  would  re- 
ceive a  sufficiently  copious  supply  of  water.  With  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  it  is  not  probable  that  the  roots 
would  enter  the  drains,  as  the  only  purpose  of  their 
entrance  there  is  to  seek  moisture.  This  being  supplied 
as  far  as  necessary  upon  the  surface,  the  seeming  instinct 
of  the  roots  to  enter  and  choke  the  drains  would  have  no 
reason  to  exist,  and  would  not  be  likely  to  occur.  The 
great  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  fruit  trees  and  vines 
penetrate  is  undoubtedly  due  in  part,  if  not  wholly,  to 
the  effort  to  seek  and  procure  sufficient  moisture.  The 
roots  of  vines  have  been  found  spreading  at  a  depth  of 


KECESSITY   FOn   DEAIKAGE.  93 

eight  feet  below  the  surface  in  soils  that  were  naturally 
drained  and  not  retentive  of  water.  Although  it  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture  if  the  roots  would  descend  so  far 
when  ample  moisture  may  be  found  near  the  surface,  the 
reasonable  probability  is  that  they  would  not.  If  the 
habit  of  deep  growth  should  be  a  fixed  one,  it  would  be 
a  question  as  to  how  deep  the  drains  should  be  made  in 
soils  that  are  well  supphed  with  plant-food  in  the  subsoil, 
but  were  too  retentive  of  water  to  permit  a  healthy  growth 
at  considerable  depth.  It  is  evident  that  with  irrigation, 
and  sufficiently  deep  drainage  combined,  the  vine  and 
fruit  grower  can  render  himself  largely  independent  of 
seasons  and  locality,  and  give  his  vines  and  trees  an  ample 
depth  of  soil  in  which  to  spread  their  roots,  and  at  the 
same  time  furnish  them  with  all  the  moisture  they  may 
need  near  the  surface.  The  practice  will  necessarily  be 
modified  by  the  character  of  the  soil  and  situation  ;  fruit 
growers,  however,  are  rarely  deficient  in  intelligence,  skill, 
or  patience,  and  are  abundantly  able  to  make  such  modi- 
fications of  the  general  principles  given  in  this  work  as 
may  be  needed.  The  practice  in  those  countries  where 
orchards  and  vineyards  are  irrigated  is  as  follows:  The 
periods  of  irrigation  depend  upon  the  heat  of  the  season 
and  the  dryness  of  the  soil.  In  the  north  of  France  and 
parts  of  Germany,  water  is  given  without  any  regularity, 
and  only  when  the  exceptional  circumstances  of  the  sea- 
son make  it  needful.  But  further  south,  where  the  sum- 
mers are  hot  and  dry,  and  periodical  droutlis  occur,  fruit 
trees  are  irrigated  constantly  and  vines  periodically.  The 
penalty  for  an  excessive  irrigation  is  a  crop  of  fruit  of  in- 
ferior quality;  watery,  soft,  and  without  flavor;  the  wood 
and  leaf  are  pushed  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit ;  succulent 
fruits  crack  and  burst,  and  shelled  fruits  have  soft  and 
imperfect  husks.  The  effect  of  too  copious  irrigation 
upon  nut-bearing  trees  is  to  develop  the  wliolc  fruit 
simultaneously,  the  inner  portions  complete  its  g;rowth 


94  IRKIGATION. 

while  the  woody  husk  is  still  soft,  and  the  latter  is  eithei. 
burst  open  i^rematurely,  or  fails  to  open  at  all,  from  want 
of  the  growing  pressure  of  the  kernels  within.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  act  with  extreme  caution.  Early 
fruiting  trees  require  little  or  no  irrigation,  and  late  bear- 
ing ones  are  watered  only  after  the  fruit  is  set,  and  need 
to  grow  vigorously.  As  the  ripening  season  approaches, 
the  water  is  withdrawn,  unless  the  necessity  is  absolute. 
During  flowering  no  water  is  given  at  all,  unless  exceptional 
drouths  occur,  and  then  with  moderation  and  at  intervals. 
The  custom  prevalent  in  the  vineyards  of  the  Crimea, 
a  locality  in  Southern  Europe,  on  the  north  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  one  subject  to  dry  hot  summers  and  cold 
bleak  winters,  is  thus  described  by  M.  Clemen t-Bertroii 
in  the  Journal  d'AgricuUure  Pratique:  "  There  are  in 
the  Crimea  four  valleys  completely  planted  in  vineyards 
to  the  extent  of  about  15,000  acres.  The  vines  are  irri- 
gated each  year  as  copiously  as  possible,  not  only  during 
the  winter,  but  from  the  termination  of  the  vintages  up 
to  the  season  of  the  next  flowering.  Some  growers  even 
irrigate  their  vines  after  the  flower  is  passed,  but  in  gen- 
eral little  water  is  given  after  the  month  of  June  up  to 
October.  As  soon  as  the  water  has  been  applied,  and  the 
ground  has  dried,  the  vineyards  are  cultivated  or  dug  over 
with  the  spade,  and  the  vines  are  pruned.  About  15  days 
before  the  vintage,  the  vines  are  clipped  so  as  to  give  air 
to  the  fruit.  After  the  grapes  are  ripe,  there  is  no  work 
done  in  the  vineyard  until  the  next  season's  labor  begins. 
The  cold  of  winter  has  not  been  found  to  injure  the  vines, 
although  this  is  sometimes  severe  and  long  continued. 
The  strength  of  the  wines  is  not  diminished  by  the  pro- 
cess, the  proportion  of  alcohol  in  them  varying  from  10 
to  15  per  cent.  It  is  found  that  once  the  vines  have  been 
irrigated,  the  practice  cannot  be  changed  without  loss  of 
the  product,  and  injury  to  the  plants.  Clear  water  is 
preferred  to  that  which  contains  suspended  matter," 


IKEIGATIOX    OF   MEADOWS.  95 

The  effect  of  irrigation  is  sometimes  found  to  render 
both  vines  and  trees  subjected  to  it,  very  susceptible  to  the 
frosts  and  severe  weather  of  winter.  This  disadvantage 
seems  to  be  a  necessary  adjunct,  or  set-off,  to  the  advan- 
tages gained  by  the  practice.  Thus,  a  severe  winter  lias 
been  known  to  destroy  whole  groves  of  olive  trees  that 
have  been  irrigated,  while  scattered  trees,  not  so  cultivat- 
ed, have  escaped.  It  is  rare  that  we  can  altogether 
escape  a  combination  of  circumstances  that  seem  to  offer 
us  only  a  choice  of  evils ;  an  alternative,  either  side  of 
which  is  about  as  disagreeable  as  the  other ;  a  Scylla  and 
Charybdis,  neither  of  which  can  easily  be  escaped  ;  and 
this  business  of  irrigation  of  fruit  trees  seems  especially 
to  be  one  in  which  the  operator  is  obliged  to  exercise  the 
greatest  care  and  circumspection  to  avoid,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  evils  of  excess,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
periodical  and  certain  dangers  which  this  practice  enables 
him  to  obviate  or  mitigate  when  intelhgently  applied. 


C  n  A  P  T  E  Pt    X  . 

THE    IRRIGATION    OF    MEADOWS. 

The  permanent  meadow  is  a  very  unusual  adjunct  to 
an  American  farm.  Our  climate  is  not  naturally  well 
adapted  to  the  continued  growth  of  grass.  Our  hot,  dry 
summers  are  unfavorable.  Generally  it  may  be  stated  as 
beyond  question,  that  the  yield  of  grass  is  proportionate 
to  the  sui)ply  of  water.  As  has  been  previously  stated. 
no  solid  nutriment  reaches  any  plant  except  as  supi)lied 
to  it  in  solution  in  water.  What  are  the  ultimate  possibil- 
ities of  growth  in  any  crop  is  unknown  to  ns,  but  it 
would  seom  as  though  tlicy  dopcnded  greatly  u])on  the 
supply  of  vratcrthr.t  c:ia  bo  absorbed,  sufliciont  nutriment 


96  lERIGATION. 

of  course  being  provided.  Rye  grass,  upon  irrigated 
fields  richly  fertilized,  bus  grown  at  tbe  rate  of  one  inch 
per  day,  and  repeated  cuttings  bave  been  made  at  inter- 
vals of  14  days,  during  a  season  of  several  montbs.  Crops 
of  grass  upon  irrigated  fields  of  a  total  weigbt  of  more 
tban  80  tons  per  acre,  bave  been  reported  by  trustworthy 
English  farmers  in  one  season. 

Irrigated  grass  fields  in  Italy  support  easily  two  bead 
of  fattening  cattle  j^er  acre,  every  year,  and  bave  long 
done  so.  In  hundreds  of  localities  in  European  coun- 
tries are  irrigated  meadows,  which  have  borne  grass  with- 
out any  sign  of  deterioration  within  tbe  memory  of  tbe 
inhabitants,  or  tbe  knowledge  of  readers  of  local  histories, 
although  tbe  crop  has  been  cut  and  removed  every  year 
during  this  indefinite  period.  Whether  or  not  these  im- 
mense yields  could  be  further  increased  by  more  skillful 
management  is  not  necessary  to  inquire.  These  products 
are  so  far  beyond  the  dreams  of  an  American  farmer,  that 
they  may  well  be  considered  fabulous.  But  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  tbe  facts.  On  the  contrary,  they  should 
be  used  as  a  stimulus  for  us  to  adopt,  Avberever  practi- 
cable, tbe  methods  by  which  these  crops  are  produced. 

The  average  product  of  grass  upon  our  rich  bottom 
lands,  will  not  exceed  two  tons  per  acre,  and  upon  up- 
lands one  ton  per  acre  is  a  fair  average  yield.  After  a  few 
years  the  best  seeded  of  our  meadows  begin  to  deteriorate 
and  run  out.  A  change  of  crop  is  made  and  tbe  meadows 
are  once  more  seeded  down  to  run  out  again  in  a  few 
years.  The  cause  of  tbe  failure  is  the  beats  and  drouths 
■which  follow  the  hay  harvest,  and  which  cause  a  cessation 
of  growth  until  they  are  past.  Beneath  a  temperature 
which  would  be  genial  and  invigorating  to  plant  growth 
with  sufficient  moisture,  the  grass  dies  for  want  of  the 
sustenance  that  water  would  afford.  The  most  valuable 
crop  we  grow  is  thus  reduced  in  its  possible  yield  one-half 
9r  more,     The  onlj  instance  of  an  approach  to  permanent 


EFFECTS    OF   PARTIAL   IRRIGATIOX. 


97 


meadows  in  this  country,  is  tlie  few  partially  irrigated 
grass  fields  Avliicli  are  very  sparsely  located  in  hilly  regions 
where  springs  and  brooks  are  led  upon  the  grass  upon 
sloping  hillsides.  In  these  few  cases,  year  after  year, 
crops  of  two  or  three  tons,  and  sometimes  more,  of  hay 
are  cut.  Where  a  very  imperfect  irrigation  has  thus  been 
employed  for  30  or  40  years,  the  meadows  exhibit  no  sign 
of  deterioration.  An  occasional  dressing  of  manure,  and 
a  little  fresh  seed  now  and  then,  keep  them  in  a  produc- 
tive condition.  But  in  the  majority  of  these  cases  the 
water  has  been  utilized  for  this  purpose,  from  sheer  neces- 
sity rather  than  from  choice.     A  spring  issuing  from  a 


Fig.  42.— IKRIGATING   A  HIl-LSIDE. 

hillside,  or  upon  a  level  field,  with  high  ground  above  it, 
and  low  ground  below,  either  meanders  wastefully  through 
the  level  and  escapes  in  an  nnsightly  guUey  at  the  edge 
of  the  hill,  or  it  spreads  over  acres  of  ground,  and  makes 
a  useless  and  unsightly  bog.  The  careful  farmer,  to 
avoid  this  evil,  and  with  an  eye  to  thrift,  leads  the  flow 
into  a  channel  that  departs  slightly  from  tlic  level,  ac  oss 
the  field  and  down  the  slope.  A  stone  placed  here  and 
there  in  the  channel,  causes  the  water  to  overflow,  and 
spread  in  a  sheet  upon  the  surface.  One  by  one  ijortions 
of  the  field  are  thus  watered,  and  the  effect  is  to  induce 
a  growth  of  grass  that  remains  green  bcnoatli  the  snow, 
and  grows  luxuriantly  as  soun  as  it  has  disappeared,  yield- 


98  IBEIGATION. 

ing  two  crops  of  hay  in  the  year,  besides  some  pasture 
when  the  springs  cease  to  flow  and  the  ground  is  capable 
of  bearing  cattle.  Upon  hundreds  of  farms  in  Pennsyl- 
Yania,  and  in  the  valley  of  Virginia  which  has  been 
settled  by  farmers  from  the  former  IState,  there  are  water- 
ed meadows  of  this  character  which  yield  a  steady  crop 
of  hay,  year  after  year,  and  possess  a  sod  which  promises 
to  remain  productive  indefinitely,  with  its  present  treat- 
ment. This  accidental  use  of  the  water  has  been  in 
reality  forced  upon  the  farmer.  Had  it  not  been  brought 
into  a  channel  and  confined  to  one  or  two  canals,  it  would 
have  flowed  irregularly  over  the  surface  and  have  formed 
a  morass.  The  process  really  has  been  one  of  drainage 
rather  than  of  irrigation,  and  the  reclamation  of  the  sur- 
face rather  than  its  studied  improvement.  The  methods 
of  watering  meadows  in  common  use  are  illustrated  in  fig. 
42,  in  which  a  small  stream  is  led  down  a  slope,  and  at 
fig.  43,  in  which  the  stream  is  dammed  and  the  watei 
carried  laterally  as  far  as  possible. 

If  such  elementary  and  imperfect  methods  have  been 
successful  and  profitable,  how  much  more  shall  skillful 
and  scientific  irrigation  add  to  the  3'ield  of  our  most 
valuable  crop,  and  render  possible  the  creation  of  perma- 
nent meadows,  upon  which  grass  may  be  grown  in  the 
greatest  luxuriance,  at  an  almost  nominal  expense  ! 
Numberless  opportunities  to  make  irrigated  meadows 
present  themselves  everywhere.  Far  from  being  a  matter 
of  nicely  arranged  quantities  of  water,  equally  distributed 
at  certain  definite  periods,  as  with  other  field  crops ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  irrigation  of  a  meadow  simply  consists 
in  causing  a  supply  of  water  to  pass  over  the  grass  at  such 
periods  as  may  be  convenient ;  the  convenience  being 
only  loosely  circumscribed  by  times  and  seasons.  It  does 
not  matter  if  the  soil  becomes  saturated  with  water,  it  is 
only  by  the  grossest  negligence  or  ignorance  that  injury 
can  be  done.     There  is  no  danger,  although  the  slope  ol 


EFFECTS    OF    COPIOUS    IRRIGATION. 


99 


the  field  may  be  considerable,  of  washing  the  soil,  or  cut- 
ting the  surface  into  ruts  or  gullies.  Watei  may  be  turn- 
ed on  to  the  sod  without  fear  of  excessive  irrigation  if  it 
is  only  kept  in  motion.  The  more  water  that  passes  over 
the  surface  the  more  valuable  nutriment  is  brought  with- 
in the  reach  of  the  plant.  Every  blade  of  grass  acts  as 
a  part  of  a  filter  which  retains  matter  that  may  be  either 
in  solution  or  in  suspension  in  the  water  which  slowly 
finds  its  way  over  the  surface.  The  mechanical  resistance 
offered  by  the  myriads  of  stems  and  leaves  of  the  grass 


Fig.  43.— IRRIGATING  A   RIVER-BOTTOM. 

to  a  current  of  water  are  such  tliat  the  combined  effect  is 
equal  to  a  loss  of  head  or  level  of  16  inches  in  '^00  feet. 

This  retardation  of  the  flow  helps  to  cause  the  deposit 
of  any  solid  matter  suspended  in  the  water,  from  which 
but  few  springs  or  streams  are  free,  and  also  to  l)ring 
every  particle  of  the  water  into  contact  with  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  ortlie  surface  roots  of  the  phmts.  Not  only, 
therefore,  is  the  plant  supplied  with  nutriment  wlulethe 
water  is  in  contact  with  it,  but  a  supply  of  nutriment  is 
deposited  and  stored  for  future  use.  This  freedom  of 
application  does  not  exist  when  cultivated  or  plowed 
lands  are  irrigated,  and  in  their  cas^  more  care  and  greater 
caution  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  injury.  It  is  there- 
fore advisable,  in  localities  where  only  partial  irrigation  la 


100  IRRIGATION. 

needed,  to  cause  these  lands  that  are  brought  under  the 
system,  to  bear  grass  iu  preference  to  any  other  crops, 
and  to  make  the  irrigation  permanent  and  as  perfect  as 
possible.  That  is  to  say,  that  in  all  other  than  arid  or 
rainless  countries,  meadows  only,  and  no  other  field  crops, 
should  be  irrigated,  unless  under  exceptional  circum- 
stances ;  for  the  reason  that  the  irrigation  of  a  meadow 
is  easy  and  requires  but  little  practical  skill,  is  more 
cheaply  performed,  because  the  works  are  permanent, 
and  is  more  certain  and  profitable  in  its  effects  than  that 
of  other  field  crops. 

It  Avould  not  be  difficult  to  give  excellent  reasons  for 
these  statements.  It  may  be  sufficient,  however,  to  re- 
mark that,  excepting  in  those  districts  where  irrigation  is 
needed  for  all  crops,  the  water  supply  can  rarely  be  made 
available  for  any  other  lands  than  river  bottoms  ;  for  the 
reason  that  the  cooperative  effort  of  many  proprietors 
would  be  necessary  to  bring  a  supply  of  water  to  a  large 
tract,  and  this  would  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  effect. 
Bottom  lands  are  naturally  suited  to  the  growth  of  grass, 
and  the  means  and  the  end  of  their  irrigation  match  so 
accuratoly,  naturally,  and  conveniently,  that  there  seems 
to  be  a  foregone  necessity  that  the  one  should  exist  for 
the  other.  Further  on,  in  considering  more  particularly 
the  possibilities  and  methods  of  irrigating  these  lands, 
the  advantages  of  keeping  them  as  permanent  grass  lands 
will  be  still  more  conclusively  shown  if  that  need  be. 

"Where  the  climate  admits  of  it,  irrigation  of  meadows 
is  performed  in  Summer  and  in  "\Mnter.  There  are  two 
objects  in  view.  One  is,  to  supply  moisture  to  the  soil 
at  a  season  when  there  is  an  insufficient  amount  of  rain, 
and  the  other  is,  to  convey  to  the  soil,  and  deposit  npon  it, 
whatever  fertilizing  solid  matter  the  water  may  contain  at 
a  season  when  water  is  very  plentiful.  The  first  object  is 
attained  by  Summer  irrigation,  and  the  second  by  irriga- 
tion in  Winter.     It  is  only,  howcvcrj  in  those   localities 


WINTER    IRRIGATION.  101 

where  frosts  are  neither  severe  nor  long  continueil  that 
"VMuter  irrigation  is  admissible.  Where  light  frosts  alter- 
nate with  sunny  days,  a  covering  of  a  few  inches  of  water, 
gently  flowing  across  the  meadows,  protects  as  well  as 
fertilizes  the  grass.  At  this  season  the  copious  rains  or 
melting  snows  carry  into  the  streams  an  immense  amount 
of  fine,  earthy  matter,  which  may  be  arrested  and  caused 
to  be  deposited  in  a  thin  sheet  upon  the  soil.  In  the 
course  of  several  years  this  deposit  has  been  known  to 
raise  the  surface  of  the  meadow  many  inches,  every  inch 
of  this  increase  consisting  of  matter  of  the  greatest  fer- 
tilizing value.  Where  Winter  irrigations  can  be  made, 
they  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  value,  for  they  prepare 
the  crop  which  is  to  be  cut  in  the  Summer  by  supplying 
in  a  great  measure  the  necessary  subsistence  for  its  growth. 
Where  the  level  of  the  field  or  the  supply  of  water  is 
such  as  to  permit  it,  a  constant  current  may  be  kept 
flowing  over  the  surface  during  the  period  when  growth 
is  suspended,  or  from  November  or  December  until  Febru- 
ary or  March. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  series  of  levels  to  be 
irrigated  in  succession,  each  may  in  its  turn  be  overflowed 
for  a  week  ;  or  by  arrangement  of  ditches  and  banks,  the 
water  from  the  upper  level  may  pass  over  each  lower  one, 
supplying  the  whole,  if  it  is  in  sufiQcient  quantity.  But 
Avhere  the  supply  of  water  is  only  limited,  it  is  preferable 
to  irrigate  each  level  successively,  for  the  reason  that  by 
far  the  largest  quantity  of  suspended  matter  will  be  de- 
posited by  the  first  of  the  waters  made  to  flow  from  ono 
level  to  another,  and  in  this  case,  the  lower  ones  will  receive 
a  diminished  quantity  of  deposit,  in  proportion  to  thoir 
distance  from  the  source  of  supply.  When  tlic  tempera- 
ture falls  sufficiently  for  ice  to  form,  the  (juantity  of  wa- 
ter should  be  increased  so  as  to  keep  a  current  c««istantly 
flowing  beneath  the  ice.  If  the  cold  is  sulficieiit  to  con- 
geal the  whole  su])p]y  of  water,  so  tliat  ice  rests  upon  tlio 


102  IREIGATION". 

grass,  tlie  flow  should  be  cut  off.  No  injury  will  occur 
to  the  grass  in  this  case,  but  if  the  water  is  still  allowed 
to  flow,  the  ice  will  be  increased  in  thickness,  and  a  longer 
tiaie  will  be  needed  for  it  to  thaw.  If  this  imprisonment 
is  continued  too  long,  vegetation  may  be  injured,  but  a 
week  or  two  is  insufficient  to  cause  any  injury. 

In  the  Spring,  when  the  water  has  been  withdrawn  and 
growth  has  commenced,  there  frequently  occur  cloudless 
nights  and  low  temperatures,  when  hoar  frosts  are  pro- 
duced. On  such  occasions  it  is  common  to  spread  the 
water  over  the  surface  during  the  night,  as  a  protection 
from  the  frost.  The  benefit  derived  is  sufficient  to  repay 
the  necessary  care  and  labor  during  the  months  when 
these  sudden  changes  are  to  be  expected.  There  are 
many  localities  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States  where 
this  sort  of  irrigation  might  be  practiced  with  very  great 
profit.  It  is  extensively  practiced  in  Lombardy,  where 
these  ""Winter  meadows"  are  known  as  7narcite,  {marcita 
in  the  singular),  and  where  they  have  long  been  known 
as  the  most  productive  of  any  meadows.  As  early  as 
February,  when  the  surrounding  country  may  be  yet 
covered  with  snow,  these  meadows,  protected  during  the 
Winter  by  a  covering  of  flowing  water,  begin  to  furnish 
their  first  cutting  of  grass.  Five  other  cuttings  follow, 
before  the  season  closes,  so  that  the  cattle  receive  fresh 
grass  during  11  months  of  the  year.  Twenty-eight  tons 
of  grass,  or  seven  tons  of  hay,  per  acre,  is  the  usual  yield 
of  these  meadows.  The  valleys  of  several  of  the  French, 
English,  and  Irish  rivers,  although  subjected  to  a  less 
genial  climate  than  that  of  Italy,  furnish  many  examples 
of  successful  Winter  irrigations.  Certainly  a  vast  extent 
of  the  United  States,  whore  grass  is  a  scarce  product, 
might  be  made  amenable  to  this  profitable  treatment. 

At  this  point  a  typical  case  might  be  cited.  When 
visiting  England  some  years  ago,  the  author's  attention 
was  attracted  to  some  extensive  water  meadows  upon  the 


AN   ENGLISH    WATER   MEADOW.  103 

banks  of  a  small  river,  the  Mersey,  wliicli  finds  its  exit 
into  the  sea  at  Liverpool.  The  upper  i)art  of  this  stream 
flows  through  broad,  alluvial  lauds,  which,  before  their 
reclamation,  must  have  been  marshy,  and  of  little  value. 
Extensive  works  have  been  in  existence,  however,  for 
many  years  ;  precisely  how  long  could  not  be  ascertained 
by  enquiry,  all  that  could  be  learned  was  that  "they 
were  always  there."  The  river  banks  were  enclosed  by 
dikes,  or  as  they  are  termed  on  our  Western  rivers, 
"levees,"  suflBciently  high  to  prevent  overflow,  even  in 
freshets.  Substantial  water-gates  were  made  in  these 
banks,  leading  into  lateral  channels  at  right  angles  to  the 
river.  These  lateral  channels  had  banks  of  equal  hight 
and  solidity  with  the  main  banks.  The  lateral  banks 
extended  from  the  river  until  they  reached  the  gradually 
rising  ground  at  their  level.  From  these,  other  banks, 
enclosing  lesser  canals,  with  water  gates  at  their  heads, 
and  parallel  with  the  river,  extended  until  they  met  the 
next  range  of  cross  banks  ;  thus  dividing  the  broad  bot- 
tom lands  into  a  series  of  parallelograms  enclosed  in  a 
system  of  canals  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  From 
these  canals,  gates  sliding  in  perpendicular  grooves,  and 
raised  or  dei)rGSsed  by  racks  and  pinions,  opened  into  the 
meadows.  When  the  level  of  the  river  was  raised  by  un- 
usual rains,  the  gates  were  opened,  and  the  meadows  en- 
closed within  the  different  canals  were  flooded  with  water, 
to  a  dei)th  of  about  six  inches.  So  long  as  the  river  re- 
mained high,  the  gates  were  opened  sullicicntly  to  permit 
a  gentle  flow  of  water  from  one  section  of  meadow  to 
another,  until  it  escaped  into  the  river  again  at  a  lower 
level,  by  drains  through  the  l)anks  ;  or  the  water  remain- 
ed upon  tlie  meadows,  in  a  state  of  quiescence,  to  deposit 
upon  them  the  fertilizing  nuitter  wliich  it  held  in  susi)en- 
sion.  For  centuries  this  ])raftico  had  been  followed,  and 
the  gra::s  thus  grown  had  been  mowod  and  fed  to  cattle, 
or  made  into  hay.     The  same  practice  was  afterwards  ob- 


104  IREIGATION. 

served  in  other  parts  of  England,  Ireland,  and  in  Conti- 
nental Europe,  where  scarcely  a  possibility  of  utilizing  a 
stream  in  this  manner  has  been  neglected. 

What  is  there  in  our  circumstances  that  prevents  the 
practice  of  so  great  an  economy  ?  There  is  no  reason  why 
our  thousands  of  rivers  might  not  each  have  its  scores  of 
(watered  meadows,  along  its  banks.  The  skill  to  execute 
the  necessary  work  is  abundant.  Hundreds  of  civil  en- 
gineers, relieved  from  duty  upon  the  suspended  or  finish- 
ed railroads,  might  profitably  turn  their  attention  to  this 
branch  of  their  profession,  if  only  farmers  were  alive  to 
the  advantages  of  thus  improving  their  farms. 

The  system  adopted  in  Europe  may  be  applied  here 
with  the  greatest  facility,  but  upon  a  much  larger  scale, 
as  our  rivers  are  larger,  and  our  river  bottoms  more  ex- 
tensive. The  irregular  and  unrestricted,  and  therefore 
sometimes  destructive  overflows  would  thus  be  controlled 
and  profitably  utilized.  The  supply  of  grass,  our  most 
valuable  fodder,  would  be  greatly  increased,  and  a  needed 
improvement  would  be  effected  in  our  agriculture. 

In  the  Northern  States  and  Canada,  Winter  irrigation 
is  impracticable,  and  there  Summer  irrigation  only  would 
be  beneficial.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  free  from  frost, 
the  water  of  the  streams,  highly  charged  with  sediment, 
might  begin  to  be  utilized.  Afterwards,  when  growth  has 
begun,  no  check  would  be  permitted,  but  every  night  dur- 
ing a  dry  season,  the  meadow  might  be  flooded.  Then, 
when  the  crop,  brought  to  an  early  maturity  by  the  stimu- 
lus of  abundant  moisture  should  be  cut  and  removed,  a 
new  growth  would  be  forced,  and  under  the  influence  of  a 
genial  sun,  would  advance  quickly.  Two  crops  could  be 
made  by  August,  and  in  many  cases  a  third  could  be  pro- 
cured by  October.  The  economy  of  the  system  is  snffici- 
ent  to  permit  a  considerable  outlay  in  preparing  the  sur- 
face, and  in  addition  there  might  be  estimated  a  vast 
saving  bv  the  substitution  of   ffrowinsr  grass  to  be  cut 


USE    OF   SPRINGS.  105 

and  fed  to  cattle,  for  the  present  costly  practice  of  pastur- 
ing. Xevertheless  it  is  not  necessary  that  pasturing  be 
abandoned,  for  irrigation  is  as  applicable,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, to  pastures  as  to  meadows. 

The   details  of   the  methods  here  alluded  to  will  be 
treated  of  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE    USE    OF    SPRINGS    FOR    IRRIGATION. 

Springs  are  one  of  the  sources  from  which  water  for 
irrigating  meaduws  is  most  frequently  procured.  They 
are  often  situated  advantageously,  so  that  the  Avater  may 
be  circulated  by  gravity  over  the  land  on  a  lower  level. 
It  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  reach  the  actual  source  of 
the  spring  at  a  point  several  feet  above  that  at  which  it 
naturally  issues  from  the  ground.  A  vast  number  of 
springs  really  furnish  a  much  larger  supply  of  water 
than  is  suspected.  Usually  they  are  allowed  to  satu- 
rate the  surface  and  escape  into  the  subsoil  by  numerous 
hidden  channels,  wliicli  in  the  aggregate  would  fur- 
nish a  respoctaljle  stream.  By  proper  economy  in  using 
the  water,  a  very  small  stream  may  be  made  to  irrigate  a 
field  of  considerable  extent.  It  is  by  using  water  in  drib- 
lets that  many  springs  are  wasted.  A  stream  yielding  one 
quart  per  second  may  have  its  water  wholly  swallowed  by 
the  thirsty  soil  within  200  fe'^t  of  its  source,  when  l)y  ar- 
resting the  flow  and  accn"Til:iting  it  in  a  reservoir,  wliicli 
may  be  discharged  at  intervals  by  automatic  arrange- 
ments, the  wator  may  bo  male  to  escape  in  a  volume 
four  times  as  large,  and  sullicieut  to  cover  eight  times 
the  surface. 


106  lERIGATlOlT. 

By  this  contrivance  a  very  small  spring  may  be  utilized. 

One  yielding  2  quarts  \)er  second  will  serve  to  water  four 
acres  of  meadow  if  stored  for  34  hours,  and  discharged 
periodically  at  intervals  of  that  length  of  time.  During 
this  period  43,200  gallons  would  be  accumulated,  whicli 
would  supply  nearly  one  quart  of  water  to  every  square  foot 
upon  the  four  acres  ;  a  very  ample  allowance  in  addition 
to  what  is  furnished  by  the  rainfall,  to  secure  a  full  crop 
of  grass.  It  would  be  preferable  to  accumulate  a  larger 
quantity  of  water  than  this,  if  possible,  and  to  give  a 
more  copious  watering  less  frequently.  A  thorough  satu- 
ration of  the  soil  at  intervals,  as  has  been  before  explained, 
is  better  than  more  moderate  waterings  more  frequently 
given.  Air  is  as  vital  a  necessity  to  vegetation  as  water, 
and  if  access  of  air  is  denied,  the  roots  of  the  plants 
must  perish.  Where  water  goes,  air  follows,  and  as  evap- 
oration takes  place,  air  fills  the  space  previously  occupied 
by  the  water.  To  moisten  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  gives  that  coolness  which  the  grass  roots  find  neces- 
sary for  their  healthful  growth;  but  to  moisten  the  soil  to 
a  depth  of  only  an  inch  or  two,  gives  no  supply  sufficient 
to  resist  the  drying  effects  of  the  sun's  heat,  or  a  hot  dry 
summer  breeze.  Two  inches  of  water  given  every  week 
would  be  a  very  good  supply,  and  with  a  spring  of  the 
size  of  How  mentioned,  economically  stored,  twelve  acres 
of  grass  could  be  watered  once  a  week.  The  effect  would 
be  equivalent  to  that  of  the  fall  of  a  steady,  moderate 
shower  during  a  whole  day  and  night,  and  occurring  every 
week,  and  every  farmer  can  readily  understand  the  value 
of  such  a  shower  upon  his  meadows. 

To  store  43,200  gallons  of  water  will  require  a  reservoir 
of  5,760  cubic  feet.  One  40  by  20  feet,  and  7  feet  deep, 
will  have  about  tliis  capacity.  If  the  width  is  doubled, 
the  depth  may  be  decreased  one  half.  The  shallower  it 
it  can  be  made  tlio  better  for  many  reasons.  The  temper- 
ature of   Sirring  water  is  generally  too  low  in  the  Summer 


EiESERVOiRS.  1 07 

for  immediate  use,  and  its  value  is  greatly  enlianced  by 
beiuL,'  raised  to  an  equal  or  greater  temperature  than  that 
of  the  air.  This  is  most  quickly  done  by  exposure  in  a 
shallow  pond.  Every  foot  saved  in  depth  is  a  foot  added 
to  the  level  of  the  outlet,  and  so  much  more  added  to 
the  area  that  may  be  irrigated.  This  is  evident,  because 
if  the  reservoir  is  7  feet  deep,  the  surface  of  the  water 
can  be  no  higher  than  the  level  of  the  source,  unless  the 
water  is  pumped  up  into  the  reservoir,  and  it  is  clear 
that  the  water  discharged  cannot  be  made  to  irrigate 
any  land  that  lies  higher  than  the  bottom  of  the  res- 
ervoir. With  a  7  foot  reservoir,  all  the  land  that  lies 
between  the  levels  of  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir  and  the 
Burface  of  the  water  cannot  be  irrigated  ;  unless  there  are 
^   d  a 


/ 


*S&.4s.i.s"^  "nCjs 


].j,r   44._~i.:,  TioN   <iF   i;i;si;i;\  Mil'.. 


several  discharging  pipes  at  different  portions  of  the 
reservoir.  With  regard  to  cheapness  of  construction,  if 
not  to  effectiveness  in  operation,  it  will  be  found  far  bet- 
ter to  have  the  reservoir  as  large  as  possible,  at  least  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  contain  water  enough  for  use  every 
two  to  seven  days. 

Where  the  surface  slopes  but  one  way,  an  embankment 
may  be  made  on  three  sides  of  a  square,  inclosing  a 
sufficient  space,  and  open  on  the  upper  side  at  wliieh  the 
spring  will  discharge  itself.  This  is  shown  at  fig.  44  in 
section,  and  in  plan  at  fig.  45.  To  irrigate  the  strip  of 
land  parallel  with  the  reservoir,  a  canal  or  furrow  may 
be  carried  on  a  level  with  the  spring,  seen  at  a,  a,  in  tlio 
figures,  to  the  boundary  of  tlie  meadow.  The  overllow 
from  the  reservoir  may  be  made  to  pass  into  this  canaL 


108 


iSRlGATtON. 


This   will    be    found   a   very   convenient    arrangement. 

Figures  44  and  45  are  intei^ded  to  represent  a  typical 

form  of  such  a  reservoir  as  this.     The  spring,  escaping  by 

a  small  stream,  seen   in  the  plan,  fig.  45,  occupies  the 


Fig.  4:5. — PLAN   OF   RESERVOIR. 

point  a,  in  fig.  44.  The  ground  around  and  below  the 
sj)ring  is  excavated  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line,  (fig.  45), 
and  by  the  part  lightly  shaded,  marked  c,  in  fig.  44.  The 
earth  removed  serves  to  make  the  dam  which  is  construct- 


Eig.  40. — TRAP  FOR   DISCHARGING   RESERVOIR. 

ed  in  the  manner  hereafter  described,  (Page  111).  A  pipe 
is  laid  in  the  dam,  for  convenience  not  far  from  the  sur- 
face, and  a  valve,  operated  by  a  key,  d,  closes  and  opens 
whe  pipe.     The  pipe  is  in  fact  a  siphon,  and  if  opened 


DISCHARGING   THE    ^VATER.  109 

when  the  reservoir  is  full  will  discharge  until  the  water  is 
exhausted,  into  the  distributing  furrow,  h,  fig.  44,  aud  h, 
b,  fig.  45.  The  dotted  line,  in  fig.  44,  shows  the  level  of 
the  water  in  the  reservoir  when  it  is  full  and  overflowing 
at  the  outlet,  a. 

When  the  reservoir  is  filled,  the  surplus  is  discharged 
on  each  or  either  side,  by  the  channels  made  for  that  pur- 
pose. This  will  obviate  the  difficulty  previously  pointed 
out.  The  flow  may  then  be  turned  upon  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  meadow  for  twelve  hours,  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  whole  of  the  water  shall  be  absorbed  by  the  soil, 
and  afterwards  the  contents  of  the  reservoir  may  be  flow- 
ed on  to  the  lower  portion  during  the  next  twelve  hours, 
when  the  outlet  will  be  closed.  Many  ditferent  arrange- 
ments for  the  use  of  the  water  may  be  devised  to  meet 
the  necessities  of  any  peculiar  case,  and  as  experience  is 
gained,  any  difficulty  that  may  arise  at  the  first  will  be 
readily  overcome.  The  reservoir  may  be  discharged  by 
an  intermittent  self-acting  arrangement  which  is  either  a 
siphon,  already  described,  or  a  more  complicated  but 
equally  effective  method  of  a  balanced  trap,  fig.  4G.  The 
balanced  trap  consists  of  a  board  having  a  weight,  H,  at- 
tached to  one  end,  and  a  cup  or  basin  at  the  other,  and 
being  suspended  upon  pivots  in  a  frame  erected  at  the  edge 
of  the  main  distributing  ditch  at  the  outlet  in  front  of 
the  dam.  Tlie  board  is  nicely  balanced,  so  that  when  iha 
basin  is  empty  the  weighted  end  rests  upon  a  ])rop,  /',  ])ur- 
posely  placed  for  it  ;  but  when  the  l)asin  is  filled  with 
water  it  overbalances  the  weight  and  falls.  As  it  falls  it 
releases  a  gate,  I,  upon  which  is  fixed  a  leatlier  cushion 
which  closes  the  outlet  pipe  of  the  reservoir,  M.  "When 
the  reservoir  is  empty  the  gate  is  raised  and  the  ])ipe  is 
closed.  When  the  reservoir  is  filled  the  overflow  cTiters  a 
pipe  through  the  upper  part  of  llie  dam,  C,  and  fli»ws  into 
the  basin.  Tlic  1)u.siii  descends  and  releases  t lie  gate i  ;  the 
force  of  the  water  flowing  from  the  discharge  pipe  keeps 


110  IREIGATIOK. 

it  open  as  long  as  the  stream  is  running  into  the  canal. 
When  the  water  is  exhausted  the  pipe  is  again  closed. 
To  prevent  the  water  flowing  over  the  dam,  through  any 
accidental  stoppage  in  the  machinery,  a  branch  of  the 
overflow  pipe  is  carried  down  the  face  of  the  dam  into 
the  canal.  This  apparatus  is  of  very  general  use  in  the 
Swiss  Cantons,  and  in  irrigating  works  elsewhere,  and 
works  with  regularity  and  precision.  It  is  necessary  that 
the  balance-trap  be  properly  adjusted  and  looked  after 
occasionally.  The  worst  that  can  happen  in  case  of 
accident  is  the  overflow  of  the  reservoir  by  the  pipe  into 
the  canal  without  harm.  If  the  overflow  is  provided  for 
at  the  inlet  by  a  pipe  or  a  channel  placed  there,  as  already 
suggested,  this  overflow  pipe  in  the  dam  will  not  be 
needed.  In  practice,  however,  it  will  be  found  safest  to 
have  every  guard  against  accident  and  consequent  damage 
to  the  works,  and  two  outlets  will  be  twice  as  safe  as  one. 
If  it  is  thought  desirable,  the  waste-pipe  in  the  dam  may 
be  placed  two  inches  above  the  level  of  the  other  outlet,  so 
that  it  will  come  into  use  only  in  case  of  a  stoppage  of 
the  lower  one.  The  outlet  pipe  should  be  large  enough 
to  discharge  the  water  as  least  four  times  as  rapidly  as  it 
enters  the  reservoir  ;  so  that  the  storage  of  two  days  flow 
may  be  discharged  in  a  night  or  during  one  cloudy  day. 
(Under  no  circumstance  should  the  water  be  permitted 
to  escape  during  the  day  when  the  sun  is  shining).  A 
three-inch  j)ipe  will  discharge  nine  quarts  per  second, 
which  would  be  more  than  enough  to  furnish  two  inches 
of  water  to  four  acres  in  12  hours.  A  pipe  of  this  di- 
ameter would  therefore  be  of  ample  size  for  a  12-acre 
meadow,  giving  a  weekly  watering  to  each  4  acres  by 
three  discharges  of  the  reservoir. 

A  siphon  is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon  to  dis- 
charge a  reservoir  automatically.  Sometimes  the  water, 
when  rising  slowly  and  not  filling  the  pipe  completely, 
trickles  over  and  does  not  set  the  siphon  in   operation. 


MAKING    THE   DAM.  HI 

When  an  arrangement  is  made  for  the  safe  overflow  of 
the  surpUis  in  some  manner,  a  valve  may  be  attached  to 
the  head  of  the  siphon,  (d,  fig.  44,)  by  which  the  flow  may 
be  started,  or  a  tap  may  be  fixed  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
pipe  for  the  same  purpose.  This  would  be  preferable  to 
the  plain  siphon,  although  it  would  involve  the  necessity 
of  personal  attendance  at  stated  times  to  dischar^-e  the  re- 
servoir. But  no  one  should  undertake  the  irrigation  of  laud 
who  is  averse  to  giving  the  necessary  attention  to  the  de- 
tails at  proper  times.  An  unexpected  accident,  the  work  of 
vermin,  the  presence  of  some  floating  body,  or  some  other 
trifle,  may  stop  the  work,  and  unless  some  oversight  is 
given  to  it,  mischief  and  loss  might  occur.  It  is  there- 
fore advisable  to  depend  upon  personal  effort  rather  than 
automatic  contrivances,  although  it  may  be  as  well  to 
have  the  latter  in  use  if  it  is  not  made  an  excuse  for 
neglecting  careful  supervision.  Of  all  automatic  arrange- 
ments for  discharging  the  water,  the  balanced  trap  is 
the  most  trustworthy  one. 

Where  the  surface  is  not  regularly  sloping,  a  hollow  or 
ravine  may  be  made  into  a  j^ond  or  reservoir  by  building 
a  dam  across  the  hollow.  In  building  any  dam  of  this 
character,  the  foundation  must  first  be  excavated  until 
the  solid  subsoil  is  reached,  or  the  dam  will  leak  and  its 
stability  be  destroyed.  A  trench  at  least  a  fourth  of 
the  width  of  the  dam  should  be  dug  and  filled  with 
puddled  earth  or  clay.  The  front  and  rear  of  the  dam 
may  be  made  of  sods  cut  from  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir, 
and  the  center  up  to  the  top  should  be  made  of  earth  or 
clay  puddled  and  rammed  solidly  between  the  walls  of 
sods.  The  dam,  if  a  high  one,  should  be  at  least  twice  as 
wide  at  the  bottom  as  it  is  high  ;  and  tlie  width  of  tho 
top  should  be  one-fifth  that  of  tho  ])ott()m.  Tho 
inner  slope  should  be  18  inches  horizontal  to  one  foot 
of  bight.  Tlie  bottom  of  the  pond  should  bo  made  of 
puddled  clay  to  ju-oveat  a  waste  of  water.     A  section  of 


112 


IRRIGATION. 


the  dam  is  seen  at  fig.  44  ;  tlie  liiglit  of  wliich  is  8  feet, 
widtli  16  feet,  and  the  puddled  clay  wall  in  the  centei'  is 
shown  by  the  darkly  shaded  portion.  Where  the  spring 
is  of  sufficient  volume  to  supply  all  the  water  tliat  may 
be  needed,  it  would  still  be  worth  while  to  provide  the 
reservoir  for  the  sake  of  gaining  the  increased  tempera- 
ture ;  but  in  such  cases  the  reservoir  will  not  be  needed 
for  the  purpose  of   distribution,  but  only  to  warm  the 


Fig.  47. — MANNER  OF   COLLECTING   THE   WATER   OF   SPRINGS. 

water.  The  overflow,  then,  only  will  be  used,  which 
will  escape  on  the  same  levsl  as  that  of  the  inlet.  The 
course  of  the  current  through  the  reservoir  should  be 
made  as  circuitous  as  possible  by  means  of  a  division 
of  boards  in  the  center,  that  the  exposure  of  the  cold 
water  to  the  warm  air  or  sun's  heat  may  be  the  longer. 
When  water  is  retained  solely  for  this  purpose,  the  space 
in  which  it  is  confined  should  be  large  and  shallow,  so 
that  the  exposure  of  the  water  to  the  sun's  heat,  and  the 


USE    OF   SPRINGS. 


113 


influence  of  the  utinosplicrc,  may  be  as  thorough  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  has  a  considerable  effect 
upon  the  growth  of  grass.  Every  one  has  noticed  the 
elfect  of  a  warm  shower,  in  early  Spring,  in  starting  vege- 
tation ;  and  also  the  ill  effect  of  a  cold  rain,  in  the  Fall,  in 
arresting  growth.  In  all  cases  the  water  should  at  least 
be  of  an  equal  temperature  with  the  air.  When  spring 
water  is  used,  the  temperature  can  only  be  raised  by  ex- 
posing it  in  ponds  or  reservoirs  for  a  time,  and  the  shal- 
lower the  pond  the  more  quickly  will  the  water  be  warm- 
ed. Exposure  to  the  atmosphere  also  exerts  a  chemical 
effect,  and  some  waters  that  contain  sulphate  of  iron,  or 
other  deleterious  substances,  are  rendered  b armless  by 
the  oxidation  of  these  impurities.  Thus  tiie  temporary 
storage  is  of  sufficient  advantage  both  in  enabling  an  in- 
termittent irrigation,  and  in  warming  and  purifying  the 
spring  water,  to  make  the  cost  of  the  reservoir  and  dis- 
tributing apparatus  a  profitable  expenditure  for  any 
meadow  of  not  less  than  four  acres  in  extent. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  a  number  of  springs  exist  upon 
the  surface  that  may  be  brought 
together  into  one  channel  with 
great  economy.  A  spring  is  often 
merely  the  overflow  of  under- 
ground streams,  and  by  digging 
downwards  the  whole  of  the  water 
may  be  captured  and  brought  into 
one  channel,  with  the  dou])le  ad- 
vantage of  draining  a  wet  field 
and  of  utilizing  the  water  for  the  irrigation  of  a  meadow 
below  the  level  of  it.  The  diaiirram,  fig.  47,  represents 
a  case  of  this  character.  A  number  of  springs  break  out 
at  the  surface,  and  sproading  make  a  marsh,  but  form 
no  stream  tbere.  To  utilize  the  water  of  tliese  springs, 
^nd  to  drain  the  wet  surface,  all  that  is  aeeded  i^  W 


Fig.  48. — Tiir  nuATN  and 

DISCHAKGE   PIPE. 


114 


IRRIGATION. 


cut  a  drain  (see  fig.  48)  from  each  of  them,  leading  to  a 
common  channel,  and  deep  enough  to  reach  the  subterra- 
nean sources  from  whence  the  overflow  comes.  The  main 
channel  is  made  to  discharge  at  a  point 
required  either  into  a  cistern  or  into  an 
irrigating  ditch.  The  method  of  mak- 
ing the  drains  need  not  be  costly.  If 
stone  is  at  hand,  and  flat  long  pieces 
can  be  easily  procured,  the  drains  may 
be  made  by  placing  long  narrow  stones 
against  the  sides  of  the  ditch,  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  covering  them  with  shorter 
pieces  placed  crosswise.  Small  fragments 
maybe  thrown  upon  these  and  earth  up- 
on them.  This  is  shown  at  fig.  49.  If 
round  stones  only  can  be  procured,  the 
drain  may  be  made  as  shown  in  figs.  50  and  51.  The 
depth  of  the  drain,  should  not  be  more  than  is  neces- 
sary to  reach  the  main  stream,  as  for  every  foot  deeper 
than  that,  so  much  head  at  the  outlet  is  lost,  and  so  much 
less  land  can  be  watered.     In  digging  the  drains,  for  the 


Fig.  49. 

FLAT  STONE  DRAIN. 


Fig.  50.  ROUND  STONE  DRAINS.  Fig.  51. 

same  reason,  no  greater  fall  should  be  given  than  is  need- 
ed. Six  inches  in  100  feet  is  ample  fall  to  keep  the  drains 
clear  from  sediment,  and  more  would  probably  result  in 
washing  out  portions  of  the  drains  at  the  sides  or  bot- 
toms.    A  very  useful  level  for  laying  out  the  drains  ma^ 


LEVELING   THE   DRAINS. 


115 


be  made  as  shown  at  fig.  53.  It  consists  of  a  parallel- 
edged  board,  seven  or  eight  feet  long,  with  a  i.  affixed 
near  one  end,  which  supports  a  pendulum.  A  scale  is 
marked  on  the  board  at  the  foot  of  the  pendulum,  where- 
by its  motions  are  noted,  When  the  board  is  perfectly 
level  the  foot  of  the  pendulum  marks  0.  When  the  board 
inclines  either  way  it  varies  accordingly.  A  handle  is 
fixed  to  the  end  of  the  level,  which  serves  to  hold  it  in 
position  when  in  use.     In  case  it  is  not  wished  to  lay  out 


Fitr.  5'.'.— -LEVicL. 


the  bottom  of  a  ditch  to  a  very  accurate  grade,  the  mere 
movement  of  the  pendulum  to  the  right,  when  looking  at 
the  scale  or  index,  will  show  that  the  grade  is  downwards. 
But  if  accurate  measurement  is  desired,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  instrument  in  ])rop()rtion,  and  mark  the 
index  carefully  also  with  a  proportionate  scale.  Thus,  if 
the  bottom  of  the  level  is  six  feet  long,  and  the  J.  two 
feet  high,  an  elevation  of  the  hinder  end  of  the  instru- 
ment of  half  an  inch  would  be  etjual  to  a  grade  of  one 
inch  in  12  feet,  or  one  in  144,  or  eight  inches  in  100  feet, 
and  would  cause  a  deviation  from  the  })erpendicular  of 
the  pendulum  of  one-sixth  of  an  inch  ;  a  grade  of  IG 
inches  in  100  feet  would  cause  a  deviation  of  one-third 
of  an  inch.  If  such  close  measurement  is  dcsircfl,  the 
instrument  will  have  to  be  carefully  made.  For  ordinary 
operations,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  take  care  that  tlio 
X  is  set  on  ({uito  scjuare,  and  then  the  least  movement 


116 


IKRIGATION. 


forward  of  the  pendulum  will  show  the  grade  to  be  correct. 
When  the  waters  of  springs,  such  as  are  now  under 
consideration,  are  to  be  used  directly  in  irrigation,  the 
method  shown  at  tig.  53  may  be  applied.  The  springs  s, 
s,  s,  may  be  opened  or  cleared  of  rubbish,  and  may  be  led 
directly  into  furrows  following  the  lines  of  level  shown  by 
the  dotted  lines.  Or  they  may  be  led  into  the  larger 
springs  and  the  collected  water  be  discharged  as  shown 
at  >S',   S.      Or  several   springs  near  the   center  may  be 


DIRECT   USE   OF    SPRINGS. 


gathered  into  a  pool  or  reservoir,  and  the  others  led  into 
it,  and  the  whole  supply  be  discharged  into  a  main  fur- 
row following  the  level  as  seen  at  fig.  54,  in  which  the 
springs  are  seen  at  s,  s,  the  reservoir  at  R,  and  the  irri- 
gating channels  at  c,  c,  c. 

By  this  management  the  drainage  of  wet,  arable  lands, 
also  may  be  made  to  furnish  a  supply  of  water  to  irrigate 
meadows,  and  the  instances  where  such  a  combination  of 
advantages  may  be  availed  of  are  far  from  scarce  or  few. 
Indeed  the  swamps  that  now  produce  very  inferior  herbage. 


DOUBLE    PROFIT   i>f   DRAINAGE. 


117 


or  that  are  totally  useless,  or  worse,  because  productive  of 
miasma,  or  dangerous  to  cattle  that  may  trespass  upon 
them,  aud  that  might  be  reclaimed  by  drainage,  and  at  the 
same  time  furnish  a  copious  su2:)ply  of  water  for  irrigation, 
are  far  more  numerous  than  would  be  suspected  by  any  but 
an  engineer,  whose  practiced  eye  can  see  at  a  glance  the 
possibilities  in  this  respect  that  others  would  fail  to  per- 
ceive. It  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  at  least,  a  swamp  is  in 
reality  a  spring,  or  a  number  of   them,   which  spread 


Fig.  54.— THE  SPRINGS  COLLECTED  INTO  A  POOL. 

themselves  over  tlie  surface  and  stagnate,  losing  their 
flow  by  evaporation  or  slow  filtration  through  the  sur- 
rounding soil,  or  their  own  subsoil.  To  utilize  this  waste 
water  would  be  to  turn  a  diseased  and  pestilential  spot 
into  a  healthful  and  productive  field,  that  would  alsoc()ii- 
tribute  the  means  of  enhancing  the  productive  capacity 
of  neighboring  fields.  Then  ''out  of  the  eater  Cometh 
forth  meat,"  and  out  of  the  waste  place  conicth  forth  fer- 
tility. 


118  lEEIGATION. 

CHAPTER    XII. 

FORMATION    OF    WATER    MEADOWS. 

flvery  American  farmer  will  acknowledge  that  grass  la 
il.  a  most  desirable,  but  at  the  same  time  the  most  difficult 
CI  jp  he  can  raise.  It  costs  less  to  raise  than  any  other  crop 
when  the  adverse  climate  can  be  vanquished.  But  fortu- 
nately the  American  climate  it  not  invincible,  and  there 
are  means  by  which  this  crop,  (as  well  as  others),  may  be 
cultivated  with  success,  in  spite  of  heat  and  drouths.  One 
of  these  is  the  system  of  irrigated,  or  water  meadows, 
upon  which  the  growth  of  grass  can  be  made  continuous 
durinc'  both  Summer  and  Winter,  for  where  the  climate 
is  not  sufficiently  cold  to  form  ice  more  than  two  inches 
in  thickness,  grass  may  be  kept  in  a  growing  state  through- 
out the  Winter,  and  be  made  ready  for  the  first  cutting 
in  February  or  March.  The  United  States  is  the  only 
civilized  country  in  which  grass  is  not  so  grown,  more  or 
less.  There  is  scarcely  a  river  in  Europe  whose  waters 
are  not  compelled  to  nourish  and  protect  thousands  of 
acres  of  its  bottom  lands  wherever  they  can  be  brought 
upon  them  by  means  of  embankments  and  ditches.  On 
every  hand  the  observant  traveler  sees  irrigation  works  of 
extensive  and  substantial  character,  and  of  great  an- 
tiquity ;  and  verdant  meadows  within  them,  covered  with 
the  most  luxuriant  vegetation.  These  works  are  to  be 
found  where  the  climate  is  naturally  as  unfavorable  to 
the  growth  of  gi-ass  as  in  any  of  our  Southern  States,  al- 
though it  is  true  that  in  warm,  humid  climates,  or  those 
where  the  heats  of  Summer  are  not  so  ardent,  water 
meadows  find  their  greatest  developcment.  The  small 
county  of  Wiltshire,  in  England,  alone  has  20,000  acres 
of  water  meadows,  most  of  which  have  been  in  cultiva- 
tion for  over  150  years.     This  county  is  a  famed  dairy 


ADVANTAGE    OF   'WIXTER    lEEIGATlON-.  Il9 

county,  and  the  "Wiltshire  cheese  is  a  staple  product  in 
the  markets  of  the  country. 

But  it  is  drouth,  and  not  hetit  alone,  that  is  fatal  to 
the  growth  of  grass,  and  which  sears  it  as  the  breath  of 
a  furnace.  Heat  and  moisture  develop  vegetable  growth 
most  abundantly.  Without  declaring  that  irrigation  is 
to  revolutionize  our  husbandry,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
refer  to  the  abundant  opportunities  Avliich  exist  here  for 
enterprise  in  this  direction,  to  be  assured  that  a  vast 
change  for  the  better  would  occur  if  it  were  brought  into 
general  use.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  an  irrigated 
meadow  depends  solely  upon  the  use  of  water  during 
the  Summer  months.  On  the  contrary,  wherever  it  is 
possible  to  be  done,  it  is  by  application  of  water  during 
the  Winter  season,  or  from  the  Autumn  to  the  Spring, 
that  the  crop  gains  an  accumulation  of  strength  which 
enables  it  to  pass  through  the  Summer  in  safety,  giving 
several  crops  in  that  season.  Not  that  Summer  irrigations 
are  not  useful  or  necessary,  but  that  they  are  of  less  vol- 
ume and  of  less  continuance. 

The  chief  advantage  of  this  system  is  the  accumulation 
of  fertility  made  during  a  period  when  otherwise  the 
ground  is  wasted  by  rains,  and  denuded  of  soil  and  soluble 
matter  that  it  is  not  in  a  condition  to  spare.  The  meadow 
is  made  the  place  of  deposit  for  a  large  portion  of  the 
matter  of  wdiich  other  lands,  not  so  improved,  are  de 
prived  by  rains  and  floods,  and  if  the  whole  of  the  waters 
of  the  streams  could  be  arrested  and  made  to  give  up 
their  burden,  the  whole  of  the  value  lost  by  them  would 
be  regained,  and  none  escape  to  the  seaor  the  estuaries  of 
the  rivers  to  form  future  lands  of  the  richest  character. 
The  opportunities  for  jtroducing  grass  upon  water  mead- 
ows in  the  Southern  States,  where  Winter  irrigation  is 
possible,  and  where  the  river  flats  are  extensive  and  nu- 
merous, arc  many  and  great,  and  the  advantages  in  thia 
direction  are  too  important  to  bo  neglected. 


120  IRRIGATION. 

The  nature  of  the  herbage  upon  an  irrigated  meadow 
depends  greatly  upon  the  skill  with  which  the  irrigation 
is  managed.  If  water  is  used  in  e  cess,  the  more  valuable 
grasses  disappear  and  inferior  unci  take  their  place,  such 
as  quack  grass  {Triticum  I'ejpens),  the  spear  grasses  {Gly- 
ceria  aquatica),  and  G.  fluitans  and  other  coarse  species. 
By  careful  management,  re-seeding,  and  manuring,  timo- 
thy and  clover  may  be  retained  in  a  watered  meadow,  but 
there  are  several  grasses  which  are  but  slightly  inferior  to 
timothy,  and  which  grow  abundantly  and  constantly,  that 
are  much  better  adapted  to  this  culture.  These  are  the 
fowl  meadow  grass  {Poa  serotvna),  rough-stalked  meadow 
grass  {Poa  trivialis),  the  tall  meadow  oat-grass,  called 
ray  grass  in  France,  {ArrenatJierum  avenaceum),  and  the 
well-known  red-top  {Agrostis  vulgaris). 

These  grasses  furnish  a  heavy  burden  of  sweet,  nutri- 
tious, palatable  hay,  and  immediately  after  mowing, 
when  watered,  spring  into  a  vigorous  new  growth.  Italian 
rye-grass  {Lulium  Italicum),  is  extensively  grown  upon 
irrigated  meadows  in  England,  and  yields  repeated  heavy 
cuttings  of  forage  for  soiling.  It  has  been  tried  here 
without  success,  but  not  on  irrigated  lands.  It  is  probable 
that  under  irrigation  it  will  be  found  of  equal  value  to 
other  grasses  that  have  already  been  naturalized,  and  are 
known  to  be  available,  as  it  is  the  chief  grass  grown  upon 
the  Italian  water  meadow^s,  upon  which  it  yields  several 
cuttings,  equal  in  the  aggregate  to  ?0  or  40  tons  of  green 
fodder  per  acre  yearly.  A  mixture  of  five  to  seven  pounds 
each  of  the  four  varieties  named,  as  best  adapted  to  water- 
ed meadow^s,  would  give  a  thick  growth,  and  as  some  of 
them  increase  from  the  roofs,  a  thick  permanent  sod 
would  be  formed,  which  would  be  in  active  and  successive 
growth  up  to  October,  or  even  later  in  the  season. 

The  undulating  character  of  the  surface  of  the  soil 
offers  the  greatest  facilities  for  using  the  waters  from 
streams,  both  small  and  great,  in  irrigation.     There  are 


MODES    OF   APPLYING   WaTBE.  121 

millions  of  acres  upon  the  banks  of  streams  that  could 
be  made  to  bear  crops  of  grass  permanently,  with  the 
greatest  profit,  at  a  comparatively  small  outlay  per  acre. 
It  is  where  the  surface  to  be  irrigated  is  large  that  the 
process  of  irrigation  is  the  cheapest.  Where  a  stream 
flows  naturally  above  the  surface  of  a  portion  of  the 
neighboring  land,  the  cost  of  irrigating  the  land  will  be 
very  small,°and  the  cost  per  acre  will  be  the  minimum 
when  the  supply  of  w^ater  is  abundant  and  the  area  to  be 
watered  is  large.  In  this  case  no  dam  will  be  needed,  or 
at  most  such  a  one  as  can  be  made  at  a  small  expense  and 
maintained  with  little  trouble.  A  simple  barrier  of  stones, 
or  a  few  planks,  or  a  log  laid  across  the  stream  and  held 
in  its  place  by  a  few  stakes  driven  in  the  ground,  will  suf- 
fice to  divert  the  flow  into  a  canal,  which  will  lead  the 
water  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  level  to  the  ground 
to  be  irrigated.  A  narrow  valley  having  a  stream  mean- 
dering through  its  center,  and  with  sides  gently  sloping 
toward  the  stream,  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  irrigation. 
The  whole  length  of  the  valley,  from  its  head  to  its  out- 
let, may  be  made  a  succession  of  meadows.  The  small 
tributary  streams  of  the  valley  will  l)e  made  to  aid  in  the 
work  and  contribute  their  share  to  the  general  supply  of 

water. 

Should  the  streams  be  subject  to  early  Spring  and  late 
Fall  freshets,  so  much  the  more  valuable  they  will  be. 
Every  flood  will  bring  down  a  large  amount  of  solid  matter 
to  be'  deposited  as  a  fertilizer  upon  the  soil.  The  water  of 
floods  is  also  highly  charged  with  solu])le  matters  which 
are  rendered  up  to  the  soil  through  which  it  is  made  to 
percolate.  The  only  disadvantage  is,  that  should  a  flood 
occur  when  the  grass  is  nearly  ready  for  cutting,  a  con- 
siderable (quantity  of  sand  may  be  deposited  upon  it,  and 
much  of  the  crop  may  be  lodged.  But  this  dilliculty  is 
unavoidable,  aiul  would  occur  in  any  case,  and  must  bo 
submitted  to  as  one  of  the  drawbacki  incident  to  the 
6 


122  lEEIGATION. 

process  of  doubling  or  trebling  the  usual  amount  of  the 
crop. 

The  first  business  to  be  undertaken  in  forming  such  a 
meadow  is  to  thoroughly  drain  the  laud  either  by  under- 
draius  or  by  open  drains.  The  most  important  drain  will 
be  that  which  cuts  off  all  the  springs  which  issue  from 
the  foot  of  the  uplands,  and  which  generally  render  the 
low  land  a  sodden  marsh.  Frequently  this  drain  should 
be  dug  to  the  depth  of  six  feet,  that  every  spring  that 
may  issue  below  ma}'  be  intercepted  and  tapped.  This 
drain  should  be  cut  above  the  highest  level  to  which  the 
irrigating  ditch  can  be  carried,  and  may  discharge  into  it 
or  be  carried  beneath  it  and  made  to  issue  in  the  lateral 
drains.  Next,- the  surface  is  to  be  leveled,  the  hillocks 
cut  down  and  the  hollows  filled,  so  that  no  stagnant  wa- 
ter can  be  retained  in  them,  and  the  lateral  slope  of  the 
meadow  be  made  perfect  up  to  the  edge  of  the  stream. 
The  stream,  or  so  much  of  it  as  can  be  used,  is  then  di- 
verted into  side  channels,  which  are  carried  as  nearly  upon 
a  level  as  possible  until  they  reach  the  foot  of  the  upland, 
when  they  are  carried  still  upon  a  level  or  with  a  slope  of 
not  more  than  one  foot  in  a  thousand,  in  a  direction  paral- 
lel with  the  general  course  of  the  valley,  but  yet  follow- 
ing the  winding  made  necessary  by  the  configuration  of 
the  surface.  The  general  arrangement  of  the  dam,  canals, 
and  drains,  is  as  follows  :  see  fig.  55.  The  winding  stream 
which  occupies  the  center  of  the  valley,  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  is  straightened,  and  dammed  at  a  ;  the  lat- 
eral canals  are  carried  each  way  from  the  dam  to  the 
borders  of  the  valley,  and  from  them  a  regular  system  of 
distributing  canals  is  supplied.  The  main  cross  drains, 
I,  1),  are  above  the  canals  on  either  side,  and  the  drains, 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  are  carried  directly  to  the 
stream,  or  they  may  be  made  to  discharge  into  the  water 
furrows  if  so  desired.  The  level  of  the  stream  may  be 
raised  by  embanking  its  sides  for  a  sufficient  distance,  in- 


A   VALLEY   MEADOW. 


123 


stead  of  building  a  dam  across  it  and  forming  a  pond. 
But  the  value  of  a  poud.  upon  a  farm,  if  for  no  other 
purpose  than  procuring  a  supply  of  ice,  would  amply 
repay  the  value  of  the  land  and  labor  in  one  year.     Thtf 


Fig.  55. — IRUIGATION   OF   A  VALLEY. 

arrangement  of  canals  here  described  is  a  typical  one  for 
this  kind  of  meadows  ;  it  is  capal)lo,  however,  of  abund- 
ant modifications,  to  suit  varying  circumstances.  It  is 
given  to  illustrate  the  principle  upon  which  these  meadows 
may  be  formed. 

There  are  various  other  methods  of  raising  the  water 
than  this  which  has  been  described,  some  of  which  may 
be  mentioned  as  being  applicable  to  various  circumstances. 
The  old-fashioned  noria,  which  has  been  in  use  in  South- 
ern and  Central  Europe  since  the  eleventh  century,  is  not 
yet  out  of  date.  It  is  still  used  in  Savoy,  Lombardy, 
Spain,  and  parts  of  France,  and  Ijoing  easily  constructed, 
and  cheaply  effective,  where  the  supply  of  water  is  suffi- 
cient, might  be  used  in  some  cases  here.  Awheel,  having 
broad,  floats,  is  hung  ujjonan  axle,  so  that  the  hnver  lli)ata 


124 


IRRIGATION'. 


are  submerged  in  the  strer.m,  fig.  5G.  By  offering  a  little 
obstruction  to  the  stream,  to  increase  the  rapidity  of  the 
current  where  the  natural  velocity  is  not  sufficient,  the 
wheel  is  set  in  motion  and  revolved.  Water  buckets  are 
fixed  to  the  circumference  of  the  wheel,  in  such  a  position 
that  the  direction  of  their  longitudinal  axle  is  45  degrees 
from  that  of  the  axle  of  the  wheel.     The  buckets  are 


Fig.  56. — THE  "noria"  or  water  -rniEEL. 

partly  filled  as  they  pass  through  the  water,  and  are  dis- 
charged as  the  wheel  brings  them  round  to  an  inverted 
position,  into  a  wooden  trough  placed  alongside  of  the 
wheel.  From  this  trough  the  water  is  conveyed  to  the 
distributing  channels.  Water  may  be  raised  by  this  rough 
and  ready  process,  in  the  cheapest  manner,  to  a  hight  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  requiring  no  attention  and  working 
by  day  and  night  so  long  as  the  stream  flows.  Another 
method  by  which  a  small  portion  of  the  water  may  be 
raised  is  applicable  to  brooks  of  moderately  small  volume, 


A    WATER    MEADOAV.  1-5 

as  well  as  larger  streams,  viz.,  the  use  of  a  water-wheel. 
Where  the  stream  cannot  be  raised  conveniently,  an  un- 
dershot wheel  may  be  set  iu  motion  by  turuiug  the  cur- 
rent into  a  wooden  trough  or  shute,  and  impelling  it 
against  the  floats  of  the  wheel.  Where  a  dam  can  be 
made,  an  overshot  wheel  may  be  used.  Either  of  these 
wheels  may  be  made  to  operate  a  chain  pump,  and  raise  a 
considerable  amount  of  water.  This  pump  is  preferable 
to  any  other,  as  there  are  no  valves  to  be  choked  by  small 
floating  substances,  or  to  be  worn  by  sand,  which  may  be 
brought  down  by  the  stream.  Wooden  pins  may  be  in- 
serted around  the  rim  of  the  wheel,  from  which  a  wooden 
pinion  or  gear  may  convey  the  motion  by  a  short  shaft  to 
the  pump. 

The  most  economical  form  of  meadow  is  the  "  water 
meadow,"  which  is  one  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  flooded 
completely  to  a  depth  of  several  inches,  and  the  water  can 
either  be  retained  upon  the  surface  when  desired,  or  made 
to  pass  over  it  with  a  slow,  steady  current.  These  are 
the  meadows  which  in  parts  of  Europe  are  so  productive  of 
grass,  being  protected  during  the  winter  from  the  slight 
frosts  or  snow  which  would  stop  the  growtli  of  the  herb- 
age, by  a  covering  of  water.  Where  the  land  cannot  thus 
be  completely  covered,  moa'low?!  cannot  bo  irrigated  in 
the  winter  season,  in  climates  subjected  to  frosts  sufficient- 
ly severe  to  freeze  the  ground  an  inch  in  depth.  The  too 
well  known  destructive  effects  of  a  frost  upon  a  sod 
saturated  with  water,  entirely  forbid  Winter  imgation 
in  the  Northern  States.  But  in  the  Southern  States, 
where  frosts  do  not  continue  more  than  a  few  days  at  a 
time,  the  "  Avater  meadow  "  may  be  made  a  valuablp  ad- 
dition to  the  farm,  and  supply  such  an  iucronsed  amount 
of  fodder  for  stock  as  may  easily  change  the  system  of 
farming  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 

In  forming  water  meadows  no  dams  aroused,  nor  is  any 
water  raised  above  its  iQvel.     The  streams  are  embanked 


126 


IRRIGATION. 


SO  as  to  confine  the  water  which  is  diverted  from  them 
and  is  carried  in  a  level  channel  which  gradually  diverges 
more  and  more  from  the  stream,  until  the  whole  of  the 
land  to  be  brought  under  treatment  is  inclosed.  As  the 
level  of  the   surface   slowly  descends,  that  of  the  canal 


e  n     _._-_::=-- 


'^^ 

^--^/X^' 


¥i- 


57. — SECTIUNAl.   PLAN    OF   WATEB   MEADOW. 


rises  gradually  above  it  until  there  is  a  difference  of  at 
least  a  foot  between  the  levels  of  tbe  water  and  the  ground, 
at  the  upper  portion  of  the  meadow.  The  more  regular 
the  slope  of  the  meadow  the  better  in  every  way.  If  a 
perfectly  smooth  surface  can  be  made,  the  meadow  is 
then  a  perfect  one.  A  perfectly  formed  meadow  is  the 
one  that  lies  in  a  succession  of  smooth,  gently  sloping 


58. — GROUND   FLAN    OP   MEADOW. 

tables,  each  one  one  or  two  feet,  or  more,  below  the  level 
of  the  other.  A  meadow  so  prepared  will  show  a  section 
similar  to  that  in  fig.  57,  in  which  the  irrigating  canals 
are  seen  at  e,  e,  and  the  collecting  drains  at/, /.  Spouts 
in  tbe  banks,  nt  a,  a,  may  pass  the  water  from  one  level 
to  another.     (See  also  page  113.) 


W  ATE  K-G  AXES. 


121 


Each  portion  of  the  meadow  will  be  confined  between 
banks  upon  the  sides,  one  of  which  will  be  upon  the  edge 
of  the  river,  and  the  other  upon  the  opposite  boundary, 
which  is  the  main  supply  canal,  and  between  a  canal  of 
distribution  at  the  head  and  an  open  drain  at  the  foot. 


Fig.  59. — SELF-ACTING  WATER  GATE. 

This  is  shown  in  fig.  58,  in  which  a,  a,  is  the  river;  J,  l, 
the  river  bank;  c,  c,  the  opposite  bank;  d,  d,  the  supply 
canal;  e,  e,  the  distributing  canal;  a»d  /,  /,  the  drain. 
The  drain  discharges  into  the  river  through  the  bank  by 
a  self-acting  gate,  (fig.  59,)  which  yields  to  the  outflow, 
but  is  closed  by  an  inflow  from  the  river.  Or  the  sur- 
plus water  from  the  upper  level  may  be  discharged  into 
the  distributing  canal  of  the  next  lower  level.  The  watel 
is  passed  from  the  supply  canals  to  those  of  distribution, 
either  by  a  gate  raised  by  a  winch  and  pinion  and  rack, 
ficr.  GO,  or  a  spout  through  the  bank  of  the  canal,  wliich 
is  closed  by  a  slide,  seen  in  fig.  61,  and  at  a,  a,  in  fig.  58. 


W/0 

Fig.  60. — WATFU   OVTE. 


'Y\\Q  water  from  the  canal  is  first  turned  upon  the  upper 
level  ;  when  this  is  covered  to  a  proper  dc])th  the  gate  id 
gloged,  and  the  water  turned  through  the  uext  gate  upon 


128  lEEIGATIOlf. 

the  next  level,  and  so  on  until  all  are  covered.  A  sufficient 
quantity  of  water  is  allowed  to  pass  on  to  each  level  to 
maintain  the  proper  depth,  and  allow  a  gentle  current  to 
flow  from  the  drains.  This  is  important  when  the  tem- 
perature falls  below  the  freezing  point.  Observations 
have  been  made,  which  have  shown  that  when  this  has 
occurred,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  has  been  as  low 


/^^ow^s^r?\~ 


>P(irT    rs    THE    BANK. 


as  26°,  that  of  the  grass  beneath  the  ice  has  been  no 
lower  than  42°,  and  that  vegetation  was  still  active,  as 
shown  by  the  color  of  the  verdure. 

As  regards  the  amount  of  water  used,  and  the  manner 
of  using  it,  the  following  experiences  may  be  cited. 

A  comparison  of  fields  that  have  been  less  abundantly 
watered,  with  those  that  have  received  a  copious  supply, 
has  shown  that  the  crops  upon  the  latter  have  been  in- 
fallibly increased. 

Where  during  one  "Winter  the  irrigation  has  been  sus- 
pended, the  succeeding  crop  has  been  little  or  nothing. 

Where  the  water  that  has  passed  over  a  field  has  been 
flowed  upon  another,  the  crop  of  the  latter  has  been  very 
inferior  to  that  of  the  former,  showing  conclusively  that 
the  earth  had  completely  abstracted  the  fertilizing  proper- 
ty of  the  water  in  its  first  contact  with  it. 
^  In  proportion  to  the  abundance  of  water  supplied  dur- 
ing the  Winter,  so  is  the  yield  of  grass  in  the  Summer. 
In  short,  facts  are  conclusive  to  show  that  the  quantity 
of  water  that  can  be  used,  is  the  gauge  of  the  harvest  to  be 
expected.  The  Winterirrigation  supplies  the  fertility,  that 
of  the  Summer  simply  supplies  the  necessary  moisture. 
In  this  respect  the  action  of  water  constantly  passing  in  ^ 


SOME  SEITLED  PRIXCIPLES.  129 

thin  sheet  over  a  grassy  sod  has  a  different  effect  from  that 
of  water  passing  over  uncultivated  soil.  It  does  not  wash 
the  soil  nor  carry  off  soluble  matter  from  it,  but  it  is  it- 
self filtered  of  whatever  matter  it  contains  that  can  be 
apijropriated  by  the  roots  of  the  grass. 

The  width  of  the  levels  that  may  be  irrigated  is  very 
irregular,  and  depending  greatly  upon  the  character  of  the 
surface.  The  larger  the  breadtli  the  cheaper  the  process 
of  preparing  the  surface,  because  the  expense  of  forming 
the  embankments,  canals,  sluices,  and  drains,  is  divided 
over  a  larger  number  of  acres,  and  the  cost  per  acre  is 
diminished.  It  is  clieaper  to  enclose  a  large  area — 100 
acres  for  instance — although  the  works  maybe  heavier  and 
more  costly,  than  a  smaller  one  of  10  acres  with  much 
lighter  works.  In  laying  out  water  mcadow^s,  this  con- 
sideration should  not  be  neglected,  and  the  largest  area 
possible  should  be  enclosed.  Some  of  the  dikes  enclosing 
the  English  and  Italian  water  meadows  are  not  less  than 
20  feet  in  hight,  but  hundreds  of  acres  are  brought  under 
irrigation  by  them.  In  such  cases  the  works  are  massive, 
costly,  and  built  to  last  for  ages.  Smaller  meadows  may 
not  require  embankments  of  more  than  one  to  three  feet 
in  hight,  and  the  earth  for  these  may  be  procured  from 
the  drains  which  carry  off  the  surplus  water,  and  which 
are  necessarily  of  ample  size.  In  making  the  banks  it 
will  be  found  the  cheapest  plan  to  dig  the  drains  large 
enough  to  supply  all  the  earth  needed  for  the  banks  ;  the 
extra  ground  used  will  be  of  very  little  importance  com- 
pared with  the  expense  of  bringing  earth  from  a  distance 
for  the  construction  of  the  banks. 

A  Avatcr  meadow,  or  at  least  each  section  of  a  meadow 
in  one  enclosure,  must  necessarily  be  carefully  leveled. 
The  most  perfect  meadow  is  one  that  has  a  perfectly  level 
surface  between  the  banks,  so  that  it  can  l)e  covered  even- 
ly with  six  inches  of  water.  The  water  may  be  flowed 
over  the  surface  of  a  meadow  of  this  character,  and  kept 


130  IRRIGATION. 

upon  it,  if  desired,  by  closing  the  outlet  at  the  foot ;  or 
the  outlet  may  be  opened  only  so  much  as  to  allow  a 
gentle  current  to  pass  over  the  meadow  and  maintaining 
the  water  at  its  stated  depth.  Upon  level  meadows  less 
water  may  be  used  than  upon  meadows  having  consider- 
able slope.  The  more  water  that  can  be  made  to  pass 
over  the  grass,  the  better,  up  to  the  point  of  the  satura- 
tion of  the  soil.  The  quantity  of  water  that  may  be  used 
depends  upon  the  inclination  of  the  surface  and  the  qual- 
ity of  the  soil. 

Where  the  surface  is  perfectly  level,  and  of  a  clayey 
character,  the  minimum  quantity  of  water  can  be  used. 
When  the  surface  slopes  so  as  to  reach  the  extreme  in- 
clination practicable  for  these  meadows,  and  the  soil  is 
gravelly,  sandy,  and  porous,  with  a  porous  subsoil,  then 
the  maximum  quantity  of  water  can  be  used. 

An  instance  is  stated  by  M.  Herve  Mangon,  in  his  work 
already  referred  to,  of  the  irrigation  of  meadows  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Vosges,  Eastern  France,  in  which  water  is 
employed  to  such  an  extraordinary  extent  that  the  total 
quantity  used  in  a  year  would  cover  the  soil  to  a  depth  of 
thirteen  hundred  feet.  In  another  case  the  quantity  of 
water  used  between  the  end  of  November  and  the  middle 
of  August  following,  was  equal  to  a  total  depth  of  27  feet. 
The  whole  of  this  time  was  divided  into  eight  periods  of 
watering.  But  the  locality  in  which  these  extreme  cases 
occurred,  is  one  where  the  meadows  are  rarely  level,  and 
have  generally  an  extreme  inclination  ;  the  soil  is  gravelly, 
being  derived  from  the  schistose  rocks  of  the  surrounding 
hills,  and  is  very  porous  and  loose  in  texture,  and  the 
water  of  the  streams  is  highly  charged  with  sediment  and 
soluble  matter,  from  the  decomposed  rocks.  At  least 
such  is  the  case  in  the  valley  of  Waldersbach,  a  locality 
much  visited  'hj  travelers  on  account  of  its  connection 
with  tlie  history  of  the  renowned  Father  Oberlin,  and 
where  the  author  has  seen  the  grassy  hill  sides  flowed 


SLOPING   SURFACES.  131 

with  sheets  of  water  almost  approaching  the  character  of 
cascades,  and  the  level  meadows  appearing  as  lakes. 

It  is  by  the  use  of  the  most  liberal  supply  of  water, 
when  the  conditions^  are  favorable,  that  we  can  cause  to 
pass  over  a  given  surface,  the  greater  quantity  of  nitrogen, 
phosphates,  and  other  valuable  matters,  contained  in  the 
water  and  needed  by  the  soil.  Irrigation  of  meadows  is 
thus  seen  to  be  by  no  means  a  simple  drencliing  of  the 
soil  by  stagnant  water  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  bringing 
into  active  contact  with  the  soil  of  the  largest  possible 
quantity  of  water  surcharged  with  fertilizing  gases,  salts, 
and  organic  matter. 

When  the  surface  slopes,  the  arrangements  of  ditches 
and  drains  should  be  made  to  suit  the  slope.  If  the  slope 
is  in  only  one  direction,  the  water  can  readily  be  made  to 
flow  down  the  slope  from  the  head  to  the  foot  by  a  system 
of  gates  from  the  canal  which  passes  along  the  upper 
part  of  the  meadow.  At  the  foot  the  Avater  passes  into 
a  drain  and  escapes  into  the  stream,  or  it  is  carried  from 
the  drain  boneatli  the  dividing  bank  into  the  next  secticm, 
and  made  to  flow  over  the  surface  of  that,  as  it  has  al- 
ready done  over  that  of  the  previous  section.  Where  the 
elope  is  not  more  than  one  foot  in  100,  a  considerable 
depth  of  water  may  be  maintained  upon  the  surface,  as 
the  flow  is.  greatly  retarded  by  the  grass.  Where  the 
slope  is  greater  than  this,  the  construction  of  a  water 
meadow  must  be  al)andoncd,  but  a  modification  of  it  may 
be  used,  and  a  meadow  upon  which  a  current  of  water 
may  be  flowed  from  head  to  foot  without  any  series  of 
water  furrows,  may  be  made  and  laid  out  upon  the  general 
plan  of  the  true  water  meadow.  But  to  flood  the  surface 
in  case  of  frost  would  be  impossible  or  injurious,  because 
of  the  great  depth  of  water  tlnit  would  be  required,  and 
Winter  irrigation  would  be  either  injurious  or  full  of  risk. 
So  long  as  the  slope  docs  not  much  exceed  1  in  100,  the 
^leadow  may  be  laid  out  as  a  water  meadow,  if  other  cir- 


132  IKEIGATION. 

cu instances  favor  it ;  (such  as  a  location  upon  a  stream 
where  there  is  sufficient  fall,  to  avoid  heavy  embaukiug, 
which  however  is  a  rare  occurrence)  ;  but  when  the  slope 
exceeds  that  ratio  another  system  must  be  adopted.  Be- 
sides the  systems  of  water  meadows,  previously  described, 
there  are  other  methods  of  irrigating  grass  lands  which 
will  be  explained  hereafter. 

The  time  of  continuance  and  intervals  of  irrigation  of 
these  meadows  is  of  importance.     There  is  always  danger 
that,  by  reason  of  a  rise  of  temperature,  vegetation  may 
be  unduly  stimulated.     In  such  a  case  the  water,  only  in- 
sufficiently charged  with  oxygen,  cannot  supply  the  de- 
mands of  the  plants,  and  they  are  destroyed  unless  the 
water  is  withdrawn  and  air  supplied,  or  the  temperature 
lowered  by  exposure  until  the  stimulus  is  removed.     An 
interval  of  a  few  days  is  then  to  be  given  before  the  water 
is  again  turned  on.     An  irrigation  of  10  or  15  days  and 
an   interval  of  five  is  the  general  practice.     AVhcnever 
practicable,  a  meadow  may  be  divided  into  three  or  four 
portions  in  the  manner  before  described.     Then,  in  the 
first  case,  by  flooding  two  of  the  divisions,  and  at  the  end 
of  five  days  drawing  off  the  water  from  the  first  and  turn- 
ing it  upon  the  third,  and  after  five  days  more  drying  the 
second  and  flooding  the  first,  and  so  on  continuing,  each 
division  would  be  ten  days  under  water  and  five  days  dry. 
In  the  second  case,  if  three  are  under  water  in  succession 
and  one  dry,  each  will  be  15  days  irrrigated  and  dry  for 
five  days.     It  is  impossible  to  give  directions  in  each  case; 
the  experience  of  the  operator  must  be  his  guide,  and  the 
beginner  must  exercise  caution,  learn  to  know  when  he  is 
right,  and  then  go  ahead.     A  reference  to  the  principles 
upon  which  irrigation  depends  for  its  good  effects,  and 
the  circumstances  which  would  make  it  injurious,  must 
be  carefully  made  whenever  there  is  doubt  in  the  mind  of 
the  operator.     The  general  rule  already  stated,  that  it  is 
much  more  common,  and  easyj  to  err  upon  the  side  of 


MEADOWS   AND   PASTURES.  KS 

excess,  than  on  the  contrary,  may  be  remembered  as  a 
caution  and  safeguard.  Still  there  is  less  danger  from 
excess  in  irrigating  grass  than  any  other  crop. 

It  mi^ht  be  well  to  explain  at  this  point  that  the  ar- 
rangement here  described  for  making  water  meadows  is 
exactly  applicable  to  cranberry  plantations  which  require 
to  be  flooded.  In  many  cases  the  slope  of  such  planta- 
tions is  too  great,  and  consequently  there  is  either  an  in- 
jurious depth  of  water  flowed  upon  the  vines,  or  the  water 
is  not  in  sufficient  supply  to  permit  the  covering  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  field,  and  the  expense  of  making 
the  necessary  high  banks  is  too  onerous.  By  laying  out 
the  meadow  as  is  shown  in  profile  at  fig.  57,  and  in  plan 
at  fig.  58,  each  plot  can  be  flooded  to  a  moderate  and 
sufficient  depth  with  the  expenditure  of  a  minimum 
quantity  of  water.  The  cost  of  making  several  low 
banks  and  smaller  drains  is  not  more  than  that  of  mak- 
ing one  high  bank  and  wide  deep  drain,  and  the  crop  is 
not  injured  by  an  excessive  depth  of  water. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

IRRIGATION   OF   MEADOWS    AND    PASTURES. 

While  the  irrigation  of  grass  land,  situated  in  a  river 
bottom,  and  having  either  a  level  surface  or  (me  with 
but  very  little  slope,  as  has  been  described  in  the  previous 
chapter,  is  an  easy  matter,  and  when  the  supply  of  water 
is  ample  is  the  most  effective  method  of  making  a  water 
meadow,  yet  the  proportion  of  farms  possessing  tlio  re- 
quisite facilities  for  a  water  meadow  is  comparatively 
small.  Where  therefore,  there  is  Init  a  small  supply  nf 
water  and  no  broad  level  space  of  ground,  the  meadow 


134  IBEIGATION. 

must  be  made  in  some  other  manner  than  that  previously 
described.  But  in  all  cases,  whatever  may  be  the  charac- 
ter of  the  surface,  when  there  is  a  supply  of  water  flow- 
ing above  the  level  of  the  ground  to  be  watered,  an  irri- 
gated meadow  may  be  made.  It  may  be  a  level  piece  of 
land,  or  a  piece  sloping  in  one  or  two  directions,  or  an 
irregular  surface  having  meandering  slopes,  or  a  hill  side 
so  steep  that  wagons  cannot  be  used  upon  it,  any  of  these 
may  be  brought  under  irrigation,  if  there  is  the  requisite 
supply  of  water. 

In  preparing  meadows  for  irrigation,  the  first  consider- 
ation is  the  selection  of  the  ground.  In  this  is  included 
the  supply  of  water.  It  may  be  that  the  area  that  can 
be  covered  by  the  water  is  too  small  to  return  a  fair  profit 
on  the  venture,  or  the  supply  of  water  may  be  too  small 
for  the  area  upon  which  it  is  to  be  spread.  Close  calcu- 
lations should  therefore  be  made,  the  supply  closely  meas- 
ured and  the  needs  accurately  estimated.  The  first  cost 
of  preparing  the  surface  being  almost  the  whole  expense 
to  be  incurred  and  this  being  less  in  proportion  as  the 
area  increases,  it  is  a  measure  of  economy  to  spread  the 
water  over  as  much  space  as  possible.  If  the  water  is 
sufiicient  to  flow  one  acre  in  one  day,  by  dividing  the  land 
into  twelve  plots  and  irrigating  one  each  day  in  suc- 
cession, the  whole  may  be  brought  under  the  improve- 
ment. 

Upon  level  lands  or  those  which  have  but  little 
slope,  and  that  in  only  one  direction,  the  preparation  of 
the  surface  is  very  easy  and  simple.  In  this  case  the  ir- 
rigation will  be  bv  narrow  channels,  or  ditches  sodded  or 
sown  over  with  grass  which  will  offer  no  obstacle  to  the 
mower  when  the  crop  is  cut.  The  form  of  the  distribut- 
ing ditches  will  be  of  a  verv  obtuse  angle,  or  a  light  de- 
pression of  the  surface  sufficient  to  3onfine  the  current 
of  water  which  will  flow  over  its  edge  or  edges,  and 
spread  in  a  thin  sheet  over  the  surface;  slowly  sinking  in- 


PLAIT   OP   MEADOW. 


135 


to  the  ground  or  finding  its  way  into  the  drain,  eitlier 
by  percolation  tlirough  the  soil  or  by  surface  flow  at  the 
foot  of  the  field  or  plot.  The  form  of  the  furrow  is  seen 
at  fig.  62.  It  may  be  two  feet  wide  and  four  inches  deep. 
As  there  is  no  loss  of  crop  in  this  case,  the  space  occupied 
by  these  furrows  is  of  no  consideration ;  the  wider  and 


Fig.  62. — FOEM   OF  WATER  FURROW. 

shallower  they  are,  however,  the  more  permanent  they 
will  be,  and  the  less  subject  to  injury  by  trampling,  should 
the  meadow  ever  be  pastured.  The  arrangement  of  the 
meadow  would  then  be  a  main  supply-canal,  so  located 
that  the  water  may  be  diverted  from  it  to  supply  any  of 
the  subordinate  feeders  in  turn  by  means  of  the  distribut- 


a               . 

P/"^ 

i 

I 

I 

c 

/ 

c 

' 

b                     t 

Fiff.  63.— PLAN  OF   IRKIOATED  MEADOW. 

in-  canals.  See  fig.  G3  ;  a,  a,  being  the  main  canal ;  b,b, 
distributing  canals  ;  c,  c,  drains.  The  How  may  be  di- 
verted bv  means  of  the  hand-gates  already  described,  or 
by  placing  obstructions  in  the  main  canal,  such  as  bricks 
or  sods,  as  shown  in  fig.  fU.  . 

Where  there  is  an  inclination  of  the  surface  insunicient 
to  amount  to  what  would  be  called  a  slope,  a  somewhat 


136 


IRRIGATION. 


different  arrangement  would  be  required.  See  fig.  65. 
The  water  would  be  taken  from  the  supply  canals  and 
diverted  into  a  feeder  to  be  carried  in  a  diagonal  direction 
across   the  plot,    from  which    the   distributing  furrows 


yy 


Fig.  04. — DIVERTING   THE   FLOW. 

would  be  carried.  The  overflow  from  the  distributing 
furrows  would  even  spread  over  the  ground  down  the  in- 
clination. The  triangular  spaces  below  the  junction  of 
the  distributing  furrows  with  the  feeders,  are  watered  by 
means  of  small  reflex  furrows,  which  gather  some  of  the 
overflow  from  the  distributing  furrows  and  carry  it  back 
toward  the  feeder. 

This  system  of  irrigated  meadows  is  applicable  to 
numerous  and  varied  circumstances.  It  may  be  adopted 
in  cases  where  the  surface  is  level,  or  where  the  inclina- 


Fig.  65. — FORM  OF   FURROW   FOR   AN   INCLINED  FIELD. 

tion  is  slight  but  regular,  and  where  the  supply  of  water 
is  not  sufficient  to  permit  of  flooding  or  may  be  in  mini- 
mum quantity.  It  may  also  be  adopted  in  those  cases 
where  the  surface  is  a  plane  of  which  the  slope  is  moder- 
ate in  one  direction,  so  that  the  distributing  furrows  may 
be  carried  on  a  level,  and  in  a  nearly  straight  direction  ; 
or  upon  nearly  all  surfaces  which  will  admit  the  use  of  a 
mowing  machine.     It  is  particularly  adapted  to  many 


INCLINED   SURFACES.  137 

cases  wliere  the  land  in  river  bottoms  has  been  injured  by 
the  washing  of  freshets,  and  a  bare  surface  of  sand  or 
gravel  has  been  left,  upon  wliich  grass  cannot  now  be 
grown  because  of  the  absence  of  soil.  This  lust  case, 
however,  would  more  properly  come  under  another  head, 
and  will  be  treated  in  the  proper  place  hereafter. 

In  preparing  the  surface  of  an  irrigated  meadow,  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  without  open  or  back  furrows. 
There  may  be  exceptions  to  this  rule,  where  the  ground 
is  to  be  laid  out  in  ,plots  for  successive  irrigation,  or  where 
the   surface  is  a  dead  level.     In   the   former  case,  the 
ground   may   be  plowed  in  broad  flat  lands,  each  land 
forming  one  plot,  of  which  the  open  furrow  will  be  the 
center,  and  the  feeder  for  the  distributing  furrows.     In 
the  latter  case  the  ground  will  be  plowed  in  narrower 
lands,  with  a  rise  from  side  to  center  of  not  less  than  G 
inches  to  100  feet ;  the  back  furrow  or  the  ridge  will  be 
the  place  for  the  distributing  canal,  and  tlie  open  furrow 
will  be  the  drain.     This  will  in   fact  be  an  extended  ap- 
plication of  the  system  of  beds  heretofore  described  as 
applied  to  gardens.     The  best  implement  for  this  work  is 
the  swivel  plow,  with  which  the  furrows  may  be  all  laid 
the  same  way  over  the  whole  field.     The  plowing  is  to  be 
carefully  and  evenly  done,  and  as  deeply  as  possil)ie.     No 
*' balks"  must  be  made,  tlic  furrows  must  be  straight, 
and  no  trash,  weeds,  or  coarse  manure,  are  to  be  plowed 
under,  that  in  rotting  would  leave  depressions  of  the  sur- 
face.    Two  or  three  plowed  crops,  or  a  Hummer  fallow, 
might  be  first  taken,  so  that  the  surface  may  be  made 
smooth  and  level.     If  there  are  hollows  and  knolls,  the 
latter  must  be  leveled  and  the  former  filled  up.    This  can 
be  done,  in  part,  with  the  harrow,  and  in  part  with  the 
scraper.     The  scraper  for  this  purpose  may  be  ii  plank,  at 
the  lower  end  of  which  a  strij)  of  wide  band-iron  or  saw- 
plate  is  fastened.    A])airof  i»low  handles iirc  fixed  lu'liind, 
with  which  it  is  guided,  and  a  pole  or  a  ciuiin  fastened  to 


l3$  IRRIGATION. 

rings  in  front,  by  which  it  is  drawn  by  a  team  of  oxen 
or  horses.  See  fig.  66.  The  common  horse-shovel  may 
be  used  where  it  is  available,  and  where  considerable  earth 
is  to  be  moved,  but  the  plank  scraper  will  make  an  effec- 
tive leveler  of  the  ground.  The  surface  is  to  be  rolled 
and  harrowed  alternately  and  repeatedly.     Upon  the  care 


Fig.  66.— THE   SCBAPEB. 

and  completeness  with  which  this  work  is  done  the  after 
value  of  the  meadow  will  depend.  When  the  surface  is 
prepared,  the  seed  may  be  sown  before  the  canals  and 
ditches  are  dug,  lest  the  water  should  disturb  the  earth 
before  it  is  covered  with  grass  and  bound  together  by  the 
roots. 

When  a  surface  already  level,  but  without  soil  sufficient 
to  bear  a  crop  of  grass  without  help,  is  to  be  improved 
by  irrigation,  the  grass  seed  is  sown  after  flooding,  and 
while  the  ground  is  moist,  and  is  left  until  what  will 
sprout  and  grow  has  done  so.  The  water  is  then  turned 
on  to  the  surface,  very  gradually,  and  allowed  to  flow  for 
24  hours,  when  the  supply  is  shut  off,  and  what  is  upon 
the  surface  is  permitted  to  sink  into  the  ground,  or  flow 
gradually  away.  This  is  repeated,  more  seed  being  sown 
each  year,  and  water  being  let  on  whenever  it  is  more 
than  usually  charged  with  solid  matter.  At  every  water- 
ing some  deposit  is  left,  and  as  the   grass  increases  in 


Makin^g  tue  canals.  139 

growtli,  more  of  this  solid  matter  will  be  arrested,  until 
in  a  few  seasons  a  sod  will  be  formed,  and  the  meadow 
begin  to  yield  crops.  This  method  consumes  a  great 
quantity  of  water,  but  is  very  usefully  applied  where  there 
is  a  stream  that  is  charged  with  mud  or  silt  after  every 
heavy  rain. 

When  the  surface  of  the  })lowed  meadow  is  ready  for  the 
water,  the  canals  are  laid  out,  with  a  fall  of  not  more  than 
one  foot  in  1,000.  Whatever  is  lost  in  the  fall  reduces  the 
area  that  may  be  watered.  The  sods  are  removed  carefully 
from  the  surface  where  the  canal  is  dug,  and  used,  after 
it  is  completed,  to  cover  the  sides.  Being  cut  into  pieces, 
and  the  pieces  placed  here  and  there  upon  the  sides,  the 
intermediate  spacos  are  sown  with  seed,  and  the  gaps  are 
soon  filled.  The  distributing  furrows  are  made  in  a  simi- 
lar manner.  These  may  be  made  with  a  plow  by  turning 
a  furrow-slice,  in  exactly  the  line  laid  out,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  furrow  from  which  the  water  is  to  overflow. 
Fig.  G7.     Great  care  is  to  be  exercised  in  laying  out  the 


Fig.  67. — METHOD  OF  PLOWING  THE   F0BKOW. 

canals  and  furrows.  A  builder's  level,  fixed  to  the  edge 
of  a  plank  12  feet  in  length,  of  equal  width  from  end  to 
end,  having  a  cross-bar  or  foot,  a  foot  long,  fastened  to 
each  end,  will  make  a  useful  implement  for  tliis  pur- 
pose. One  foot  being  set  on  the  ground  in  the  line 
of  the  ditch,  the  other  is  moved  from  one  side  to  the 
other  in  the  same  direction,  until  the  level  is  found.  A 
peg  is  driven  there  to  mark  the  spot,  and  the  level  moved 
further  on.  It  does  not  rcfinire  much  iriu:enuity  to  do 
tliis,  and  any  farmer  of  ordinary  iiiti'lligonce  need  not 
fear  that  he  will  go  wrong  if  he  will  onlv  be  careful  and 
cautious  as  he  goes  along,  and  takes  the  precaution  to 


140  IKEIGATION. 

Yerify  his  levels  by  turning  the  implement,  and  going 
back  over  the  line. 

Many  rough,  stony,  or  swampy  pieces  of  ground  already 
in  grass,  may  be  improved  without  disturbing  the  sur- 
face, by  thoroughly  draining  the  subsoil  and  laying  out 
canals  without  reference  to  any  particular  line,  but  merely 
causing  them  to  follow  the  level  in  a  direction  meander- 
ing to  suit  the  surface.  Hollows  should  be  filled  up  with 
earth  taken  from  adjoining  elevations,  the  sod  being  first 
removed  and  then  replaced.  Waste  pieces  of  land,  at 
present  a  refuge  and  nursery  for  weeds  of  many  kinds, 
and  a  detraction  to  the  farms  to  which  they  belong,  may 
thus  be  changed  at  smaH  cost  into  land  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive kind. 

The  irrigation  of  an  irregular  surface,  such  as  hill  sides, 
although  it  may  need  more  careful  preparation  and  ad- 
justment of  the  levels,  is  no  more  difficult  than  that  of  a 
perfect  level.  In  fact,  there  are  advantages  in  favor  of 
the  irregular  surface  which  offset  the  apparently  easier 
irrigation  of  a  dead  level.  Drainage  is  an  indispensable 
adjunct  of  irrigation,  and  no  land  is  so  frequently  drained 
by  nature  as  a  hill  side,  or  what  is  known  as  rolling  land. 
Generally  the  simplest  methods  of  surface  drainage  will 
be  sufficient  for  lands  of  considerable  slope.  The  cost  of 
thorough  underdraining  is  therefore  saved  in  the  case  of 
a  meadow  of  this  character.  The  water  supply,  and  the 
character  of  the  canals  suitable  for  irregular  surfaces, 
differ  in  no  respect  from  those  already  described.  It  is 
in  'the  method  of  distributing  the  water,  and  laying  out 
the  furrows,  that  especial  directions  are  needed. 

There  are  several  methods  of  irrigating  lands  of  this 
character,  which  are  applicable  to  our  circumstances. 
Level  furrows  may  be  used  by  which  the  water  is  carried 
in  winding  directions  around  the  elevations  and  depres- 
sions of  the  surface,  from  feeders  which  are  taken  from 
the  main  supply  canal  whenever  it  may  be  most  con' 


LAYING    OUT    FUKKOWS. 


141 


Tenient.  To  trace  the  course  of  these  distributing  fur- 
rows is  very  easy,  if  the  conimou  level,  already  described, 
is  used.  The  course,  as  thus  laid  out,  will  form  a  suc- 
cession of  angles,  the  apex  of  each  of  which  will  be 
marked  by  a  small  peg  driven  in  the  ground.     To  pre- 


Fig.  68.— LAYING  OUT  FURROWS. 

vent  abrasion  of  the  furrows  at  these  angles,  gentle  curves 
are  to  be  made  from  point  to  point.  These  curves  will 
conform  exactly  to  the  level  of  the  furrow.  Fig.  08  illus- 
trates the  method  of  laying  out  these  curves.  If  the 
slope  is  not  so  great  as  to  permit  washing  out  of  the  soil, 
the  feeding  canals  may  be  carried  straight  down  it.  If 
the  slope  is  too  great  for  this  to  be  done  safelv,  the  feed- 
ers will  meander  in  the  same  manner  as  the  furrows,  or 


Fij^.  69. — FURROWS  ON   A  REGULAR  SLOPB. 

they  may  be  made  to  follow  a  diagonal  direction  across 
the  slope,  so  as  to  bring  the  fall  within  proper  bounds. 
The  meadow  will  then  appear  as  in  fig.  <!!•,  in  which  a,  h, 
are  the  canals  or  feeders,  and  tlie  lateral  lines  the  furrows. 
But  the  least  troublesome  and  chcaiJest  method  is  by  in- 
clined furrows  carried  in  the  straight  lines  across  tljo 
planes  of  level,  and  supplied  by  feeedcrs  carried  cither  di- 


142 


IRRIGATION. 


rectly  or  diagonally  down  the  slope.  The  furrows  branch 
both  to  the  right  and  left  from  the  feeders,  and  have  but 
very  little  inclination  from  the  level.  They  are  made  to 
diminish  in  size  from  the  feeder  until  each  disappears  in  a 
point  at  the  extremity.  Each  feeder  with  its  two  lateral 
ranges  of  furrows  thus  appears  upon  the  surface  in  shape 
like  the  backbone  of  a  fish,  or  what  is  especially  known 
as  "herring-bone  shape."  Fig.  70  exhibits  a  plan  of  a 
meadow  thus  laid  out.  The  slope  of  the  field  is^from 
top  to  bottom.     The  water  is  received  by  a  main  canal, 

A 


Fig.  70.— FUKKOWS   AND    DRAIN3  FOR   IRREGULAR   SLOPES. 

aud  is  diverted  into  subsidiary  canals.  A,  B,  and  from 
them  into  the  feeders,  a,  a,  a,  and  the  furrows  which 
branch  from  them  upon  each  side.  The  drains  are  seen 
at  h,  h,  h.  The  course  of  the  water  is  shown  by  the  ar- 
rows. The  distance  between  the  feeders  should  be  from 
100  to  150  feet,  which  will  make  the  furrows  from  50  to 
75  feet  long,  and  the  latter  should  be  from  15  to  20  feet 
apart.  These  distances  will  be  regulated  by  the  character 
of  the  soil  as  to  its  porosity  or  retentiveness.     The  lower 


STEEP    UILL-SIDES.  143 

Extremity  of  each  feeder  is  closed  by  a  sod  or  a  small 
gate,  and  th«  flow  may  be  regulated  or  diverted  wheu  de- 
sirable by  the  same  means  at  any  part  of  the  channel. 
The  drains  are  placed  midway  between  each  feeder,  and 
receive  the  surplus  water,  carrying  it  off  at  the  foot  of 
the  meadow.  When  the  water  is  in  flow,  notice  is  to  be 
taken  of  any  portion  of  the  meadow  which  does  not  re- 
ceive a  supply,  and  a  special  furrow  is  to  be  made  to 
remedy  the  defect. 

Drains  are  not  always  necessary  upon  these  meadows. 
If  the  soil  is  clay  and  retentive  of  moisture,  and  the  slope 
is  slight,  they  will  be  indispensable.  ^\'here  the  soil  is  open 
and  porous,  and  naturally  drained  by  the  subsoil,  they 
may  be  dispensed  with.  But  attention  must  be  given  to 
so  feed  the  water  that  it  is  all  used,  and  not  allowed  to 
drown  the  lower  portions  of  the  field.  One  drain  at  the 
foot  of  the  meadow  is  to  be  provided  in  all  cases. 

Another  method  of  iiTigation  is  adapted  to  very  steep 
hillsides.  This  is  known  as  the  catch-water  system.  Hill- 
sides so  steep  that  wagons  cannot  be  taken  upon  them, 
may  be  watered  by  this  system.  A  stream  or  canal  flow- 
ing upon  the  crest  of  the  hill  is  dammed,  or  closed  tem- 
porarily, by  means  of  a  gate.  The  water  then  flows  over 
the  bank,  in  a  sheet  more  or  less  perfect,  as  the  bank  has 
been  leveled  accurately  or  otherwise.  At  some  distance 
down  the  slope,  the  water  that  is  not  absorbed  by  the 
soil  is  caught  in  a  second  canal  or  ditch,  which,  when 
full,  overflows  and  spreads  the  water  upon  the  section  be- 
low it.  The  surplus  is  caught  by  a  lower  canal,  and 
spread  as  before.  Tliis  is  repeated,  until  either  the  water 
is  exhausted  or  the  bottom  is  reached.  If  the  PU})])ly  is 
such  tliat  economy  is  to  be  exercised,  the  water  may  bo 
carried  into  one  of  the  lower  canals  by  an  underground 
spout  of  wood,  and  the  meadow  be  watered  in  successive 
portions.  The  section  of  a  field  thus  watered  is  shown 
in  fig.  71.     a,  is  the  stream,  and  h,  h,  the  canals,  from 


144  lERIGATIOK. 

which  the  water  flows  over  the  intermediate  slopes.  The 
canals  in  this  system  follow  a  perfectly  level  course,  and 
much  care  is  to  be  exercised  to  follow  the  sinuous  course  of 
this  level  across  the  meadow.  A  very  safe  method  is  to 
make  the  lower  side  of  the  canal  of  plank  or  slips  of 
board,  over  the  edge  of  which  the  water  will  flow  without 
injury  to  the  canal.     The  cost  of  this  system  of  irriga- 


Fig  71. — CATCH-WATER  FURROWS. 

tion  is  frequently  not  more  than  $10  per  acre.  The 
canals  need  to  be  but  very  small  ;  a  furrow  that  will  ar- 
rest the  flow  of  water  is  all  that  is  required,  its  main 
oflBce  being  to  restrain  the  velocity  of  the  water,  and  to 
collect  it  from  the  numerous  streamlets  into  which  it  soon 
gathers,  and  again  spread  it  in  a  thin  sheet  over  the 
whole  surface. 

Where  the  surface  admits  of  it,  a  series  of  slopes  and 
terraces  may  be  made,  which  can  be  irrigated  upon  this 
system.  See  fig.  72.  In  this  case,  the  slopes  may  be 
covered  with  grass,  and  the  intervals  cultivated  if  desired. 


-SH.)l'Eri    AND    TEiiRACES. 

The  water  which  flows  down  the  slope  is  caught  in  the 
furrow  at  the  foot,  and  then  passes  over  the  terrace  on  to 
the  next  slope.  The  furrow  at  the  edge  of  the  terrace  is 
needed  to  retain  the  water  sufficiently  to  thoroughly  irri- 
gate the  soil  of  the  terrace,  which  would  possibly  other- 
wise receive  less  than  its  share.  In  this  system  of  irriga- 
tion, when  the  soil  is  open  and  porous  and  the  supply  of 
water  limited,  it  will  be  necessary  to  puddle  the  bottom 


BBAIN^AGB.  1 45 

of  the  canals  to  prevent  loss  of  water.  It  may  be  that 
the  cheapest  plan  would  be  to  make  the  bottom  and  lower 
side  of  the  canal  of  boards.  In  this  case,  a  board  of  14 
inches  in  with  would  form  the  bottom  of  the  canal,  and 
one  of  8  inches  the  lower  side.  A  canal  of  this  capacity 
would  convey  water  enough  for  several  acres,  and  would 
not  be  more  costly  than  to  puddle  or  cement  the  bottom, 
when  clay  is  not  readily  at  hand. 


CHAPTER    XI  Y. 

DRAINAGE    OF    IRRIGATED    FIELDS. 

The  absolute  necessity  of  water  to  vegetable  growth 
must  not  be  accepted  in  an  unqualified  sense.  "Water  is 
a  good  and  necessary  thing,  but  there  may  be  too  much 
of  it,  and  too  much  is  as  fatal  to  the  profitable  culture  of 
land  as  too  little.  As  the  circulation  of  air  brings  life 
and  vigor  to  the  lungs  of  an  animal,  so  the  circulation  of 
water  brings  vitality  to  the  roots  of  a  plant.  Stagnant 
water  is  as  fatal  to  plant  growth  as  stagnant  air  is  to  tho 
health  and  well-being  of  animals.  Therefore  irrigation 
cannot  be  successfully  used  Avithout  adequate  drainage. 
Sometimes  this  is  naturally  provided.  Light  soils,  with 
gravelly  subsoils,  may))ermit  the  passage  of  water  through 
them  with  facility,  acting  as  filters  to  retain  all  its  fer- 
tilizing qualities.  Such  lands  are  the  most  readily  adajjt- 
ed  to  irrigation,  and  any  artificial  provision  for  carrying 
off  the  water  from  them  is  unnecessary.  But  there  are 
many  lands  with  retentive  surface  or  subsoil,  and  others 
with  subsoil  practically  impcrmea})le  to  water,  that  if 
brought  under  irrigation  must  l)c  iboroughly  drained,  or 
they  will  be  injured  instead  of  improved,  and  tho  charac- 
7 


146  IKRIGATION. 

ter  of  the  Tegetation  they  bear  be  totally  changed.  An 
undrained  meadow  may  be  thus,  by  irrigation,  changed 
into  a  marsh,  and  good,  though  scanty  grass  be  replaced 
by  useless  marsh  sedges  and  rushes.  Sloping  lands  may 
need  drainage  as  much  as  level  lands.  Hillsides  that  have 
been  brought  under  irrigation,  have  sometimes  discharged 
their  surplus  waters  at  a  lower  level,  wdiere  they  have 
gathered  and  changed  a  portion  of  the  surface  into  a 
quagmire,  until  drains  have  been  constructed  to  remedy 
the  evil. 

Again,  there  are  cases  in  which,  by  a  judicious  system 
of  drains,  a  swamp  may  be  reclaimed,  and  the  water, 
which  had  been  previously  a  hindrance  to  cultivation, 
may  be  gathered  into  ditches  and  used  to  irrigate  a 
meadow,  and  yield  bounteoiis  crops.  Such  a  case,  which 
actually  occurred,  may  be  profitably  described.  It  was  a 
till-side  of  fertile  clay  soil,  resting  upon  a  clay  slate, 
from  which  the  soil  of  a  level  flat  at  its  foot  had  been 
originally  derived.  Abundant  springs  broke  out  upon  the 
hill-side,  and  after  forming  marshy  spots  around  them,  they 
disappeared  until  they  again  broke  out  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  where  they  gathered  and  formed  a  dangerous  and  im- 
passable swamp.  Here  were  30  acres  of  land  rendered 
■worthless,  and  a  dangerous  trap  for  any  stock  that  might 
be  tempted  to  trespass  upon  its  treacherous  surface.  Hun- 
dreds of  similar  tracts  exist  where  there  are  hills  and 
valleys. 

The  reclamation  of  this  tract  was  a  very  simjile  mat- 
ter. Its  outlines  are  shown  at  figure  73.  A  drain  was 
cut  near  the  foot  of  the  hill.  See  a.  It  was  necessary 
to  take  this  drain  to  a  depth  of  seven  feet  before  the 
heaviest  springs  were  cnt.  At  this  depth,  a  flow  of  water 
was  reached  which  nearly  filled  the  ditch,  and  furnished 
a  large  stream.  The  drain  was  placed,  with  a  view  to  ir- 
rigation of  the  meadow,  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
flat.     It  then  formed  a  supply  canal  from  which  the  flat 


USE    OF    DRAINAGE    "SVATER. 


147 


could  be  irrigated  by  means  of  shallow  ditches  -which  led 
to  lateral  furrows  diverging  on  each  side  of  the  ditches. 
The  surplus  water  escaped  from  the  foot  of  the  meadow 
over  the  bank  into  a  stream,  h.     The  plan  of  the  meadow 


Fig.  r. 


t 

I  ION 


t1 


:)F    A    liKAlM.O    nil. I,   AND   IRRIGATED   FLAT. 


is  shown  at  fig.  74.  A  being  the  hill  ;  a,  a,  the  drain, 
from  which  the  ditches  and  furrows  are  led  down  to  the 
stream,  h,  h,  at  the  foot.  By  closing  the  shallow  ditches  the 
water  could  be  backed  up  over  the  meadow  or  thrown  in- 
to lateral  ditches.  None  of  these  ditches  were  deep 
enough  to  obstruct  a  mowing  machine.     It  only  rccjuired 


wmM 


)i;v);^ivi' 


i 


Fig.  74.— FLAN    OF   TUE   DRAIN   AiJD    FUHKOWS. 

the  lalior  of  two  men  for  three  montlis,  and  the  lap.'^e  cf 
two  years'  time,  to  convert  this  30  acres  into  a  dry,  arable 
field  of  12  acres,  and  a  meadow  of  18  acres,  wliich  was 
covered  with  grass  and  clover  wIicr',  in  former  years, 
several  cows  had  been  mired  and  smotliercil  in  mud, 


148  lEKIGATION. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  treat  of  drainage  with 
reference  to  itself  alone,  but  only  so  far  as  it  may  be  used 
in  connection  with,  or  as  an  adjunct  to,  irrigation. 
Drainage  may  be  superficial  or  subterranean.  Superficial, 
or  surface  drainage,  is  the  simplest.  Nothing  is  needed 
for  its  practice  but  to  provide  open  channels  into  which 
the  surplus  surface  water  may  find  its  way.  As  a  matter  of 
necessity,  these  to  be  perfect  must  be  placed  at  the  lowest 
levels  of  the  ground  to  be  drained.  Besides,  they  need 
to  be  placed  in  such  relation  to  the  distributing  furrows 
of  the  irrigating  system,  as  to  catch  the  water  as  soon  as 
it  has  completely  accomplished  its  purpose,  and  remove 
it  in  the  most  effective  manner.  Sufficient  description 
of  needed  methods  has  already  been  given,  to  make  clear 
the  means  of  doing  this.  For  subterranean,  or  subsoil 
drainage,  much  more  elaborate  and  costly  methods  are 
necessary.  Not  only  must  expensive  ditches  be  made, 
and  earthen  tiles  be  used,  but  the  arrangement  of  the 
drains,  with  reference  to  the  irrigating  ditches  or  furrows, 
must  be  carefully  made. 

No  drain  should  exist  immediately  beneath  an  irrigat- 
ing ditch,  canal  or  furrow,  for  the  reason  that  excavated 
earth  cannot  be  so  returned  as  to  be  as  compact  as  it  laid 
before.  If  then  a  water  channel  passes  across,  or  along 
a  line  of  earth,  that  has  been  disturbed,  a  rapid  infiltra- 
tion occurs,  the  water  makes  itself  a  channel,  which  is 
rapidly  enlarged  ;  sand  or  earth  is  carried  into  the  drains, 
and  the  water  not  only  escapes  without  doing  its  work, 
but  chokes  the  drains  in  a  short  time.  Thus  no  drain 
should  be  made  nearer  to  an  irrigating  furrow,  or  canal, 
than  six  feet,  and  no  irrigating  furrow  should  terminate 
at  a  less  distance  from  the  line  of  a  drain,  than  six  feet. 
The  usual  arrangement  of  drains  and  furrows  is  shown  at 
figure  75.  Here  A,  A,  is  the  main  canal  ;  A,  B,  A,  C, 
the  feeders,  with  the  lateral  distributing  canals  or  fur- 
rows ;    a,   the  main   drain,  which   discharges  into  the 


FLtlsmXG  DRAINS. 


149 


outlet,  and  c,  c,  are  the  small  collecting  drains.  The 
small  drains  follow  the  direction  of  the  greatest  slope  of 
the  ground. 

The  system  of  drains  to  be  adopted  will,  in  all  cases, 
conform  to  that  of  thesystem  of  canals  and  furrows.  When 
in  perfection  tlie  drainage  system  will  be  an  exact  counter- 
part of  that  of  the  irrigation,  and  so  devised  as  to  carry 
ofE  the  water  after  its  service  has  been  performed,  and  to 


A 

C 

C 

c 

c 

d 

C 

B 

1 

i 

Fig.  75.— MAJNNER  OF   SUB  DRAINING   AN    IKRIOATED  MEADOW. 

cause  it  to  circulate  completely  through  every  portion  of 
the  soil  occupied  by  tlie  roots  of  the  grass,  after  it  has 
been  spread  completely  over  the  surface.  Tlie  construc- 
tion of  the  drains  is  in  no  wise  different  from  tliat  of 
ordinary  tile  drains,  and  therefore  needs  no  description 
here. 

It  is  sometimes  found  of  great  service,  consequent 
upon  the  frequency  witli  wliieli  sand  or  oarMiy  sediment 
is  carried  into  the  drains,  to  provide  a  method  of  Hooding 
and  flushing  them.  This  is  called  intermittent  drainage. 
It  is  applied  also  very  advantageously  to  fields  that  arc 
subjected  to  intermittent  irrigation,  or  irrigation  by  sue- 


150 


IKRIGATION. 


cessive  portions.  It  consists  in  supplying  an  earthen  or 
wooden  pipe,  which  is  set  perpend icuhirly  in  the  ground 
in  the  line  of  the  main  drain,  so  that  the  main  drain 
pipe  enters  it  upon  one  side,  and  leaves  it  upon  the  other. 
This  pipe  thus  cuts  the  main  drain  at  such  intervals  as 
may  be  desirable.  It  is  covered  by  a  cap,  and  is  reached 
through  a  covered  trap  or  box,  placed  on  a  level  with  the 
surface  of   the  ground.     This   is  seen   at  fig.  76.     The 

proper  situations  for  these 
pipes  are  just  below  the  junc- 
tion of  a  series  of  lateral  drains, 
as  at  d,  d,  in  fig.  75.  These 
pipes  offer  facilities  for  closing 
the  drain  by  means  of  simple 
contrivances.  The  most  ef- 
fective of  these  is  a  plug  or 
cushion  of  wood,  which  fits 
in  the  drain  leading  from 
the  pipe  or  well.  This  plug 
is  fastened  horizontally  to 
the  lower  portion  of  the  T- 
shaped  arm.  One  of  the  up- 
per cross  parts  of  the  T  is  fixed  into  a  hole  or  groove  in 
the  pipe  or  well,  and  a  wire  is  fastened  to  the  other  cross 
part.  When  the  wire  is  pulled,  it  moves  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  T  laterally,  and  draws  the  plug  from  the 
opening  of  the  drain  pipe.  When  the  wire  is  released, 
the  weight  of  the  arm  of  the  T  carries  the  plug  to  its 
place  again,  or  the  force  of  the  water  flowing  through 
the  drain  carries  it  and  holds  it  there.  This  is  shown  in 
fig.  76,  in  which  A,  B,  is  the  drain  pipe  ;  a,  the  box  or 
trap  by  which  the  wire  is  reached  ;  i,  the  plug  Avith  its 
movable  arm,  from  which  a  copper  wire  is  carried  to  the 
upper  box,  where  it  is' secured  by  a  ring  upon  a  hook. 

The  operation  of  the  contrivance  is  as  follows  :    When 
the  drain  is  closed  and  the  flow  is  stopped,  all  the  drains 


Fip.  76.— PLUG  FOR  CLOSING 
DRAIN. 


METHODS    OF   FLUSHING. 


151 


above  the  obstacle  are  charged  with  wator.  ^ater  also 
accumulates  in  the  subsoil  and  soil,  and  in  fact  the 
whole  portion  of  the  field  under  the  influence  of  the 
drains,  becomes  filled  witli  water  as  completely  as  may  be 
desired.  At  any  time  when  the  drain  may  be  opened, 
there  is  a  rush  of  water  through  the  drains,  by  which 
any  sediment  is  effectively  carried 
away,  and  the  drains  left  free  and 
clear.  The  operation  may  be  re- 
peated upon  each  division  of  the 
field  consecutively  from  the  foot  up- 
wards. Instead  of  the  plug  above  de-  ^? 
scribed,  an  iron  rod,  having  a  curved 
sheet  of  zinc,  or  tinned  or  galva- 
nized iron,  attached  to  the  end,  see 
fig.  77,  may  be  used.  The  curved 
sheet  reaches  quite  round  the  well, 
and  when  drawn  up  opens  the  drain, 
but  when  pushed  to  the  bottom, 
closes  it.  If  the  well  is  square,  a  si  ide 
made  to  move  in  grooves  may  be  used  to  close  the  drain. 
The  simpler  the  method,  the  less  risk  there  is  in  its  use  ; 
but  the  need  of  permanence  of  structure  is  obvious,  for 
if  it  gets  out  of  order,  nothing  remains  but  to  take  up 
the  well  and  replace  it. 

Whatever  system  of  drainage  is  adopted,  is  immaterial, 
if  the  main  points  here  touched  upon  arc  provided  for. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  drainage  is  in- 
dispensable, and  that  except  under  rare  circumstances, 
thorough  subsoil  drainage  only  will  be  sullicient  to  meet 
all  the  re^iuirements  of  the  case  ;  and  that  surface  drain- 
age may  be  an  unsatisfactory  makesliift  for  tlie  more  ])cr- 
fect  method.  The  size  of  tile  used,  is  one  inch  for  the 
small  drain,  two  inches  for  the  laterals,  and  time  or  four 
inches,  or  even  larger  than  tliat,  for  the  main  drains. 
The  size  of  the  main  drains  should  boar  a  proper  proper* 


Fiu;.  T7. — A  cLKVEB 

DRAIN-STOPPEB. 


152  IRRIGATION. 

tion  to  the  quantity  of  water  admitted  to  the  field,  and 
it  may  be  that  the  discharge  drain,  into  which  the  main 
drains  enter,  may  need  to  be  six  or  eight  inches  in  di- 
ameter. This  question,  as  to  the  size  of  tile,  will  need 
careful  consideration,  because  if  the  size  is  insufficient, 
the  flow  will  be  retarded,  with  the  inevitable  result  of 
sediment  and  choked  drains.  As  a  general  rule,  the  main 
pipes  for  irrigated  meadows  should  be  twice  as  large  as 
those  used  for  ordinary  drains,  as  the  excess  of  surplus 
water  at  times  may  be  very  large.  Any  system  of  pipes, 
that  is  not  equal  to  the  most  exacting  emergency,  will  be 
insufficient,  and  calculations  must  be  made  to  meet  such 
an  emergency.  Before  any  large  expenditure  of  money 
or  labor  is  made  in  laying  down  drains,  which  once  laid, 
admit  of  no  remedy  except  total  undoing  of  the  work 
and  relaying  the  pipes,  it  would  be  judicious  to  consult  a 
capable  civil  engineer,  who  could  readily  make  safe  cal- 
culations as  to  the  size  of  pipe,  the  position  of  the  drains, 
and  the  number  required. 


0  H  A  P  T  E  E    XV 

MANAGEMENT  OF  IRRIGATED  FIELDS. 

When  a  field  has  been  successfully  irrigated  and  drained 
at  great  expense,  it  may  be  seriously  injured  for  \  ant  of 
proper  management.  To  care  properly  for  an  irrigated 
meadow  calls  for  the  exercise  of  tact  and  skill  of  no  mean 
character.  A  few  general  rules  may  be  laid  down  for  the 
proper  management  of  irrigated  meadows,  which  will 
serve  to  meet  the  majority  of  cases,  and  by  modifications 
of  which  exceptional  cases  may  be  met.  The  point  of 
chief  importance  is  to  avr  id  pfistnring.  Xo  hoof  should 
be  permitted  upon  a  c^-  -''^tely  irrigated  meadow,  unless 
it  be,  under  certain  restrictions,  those  of  sheep.     Sheep 


PASTUErNG. 


153 


may  be  allowed  to  pasture  such  a  meadow  after  the  last 
crop  of  hay  has  been  made,  and  a  sufficient  interval  has 
elapsed  to  thoroughly  dry  the  ground  and  give  the  grass 
a  start  again.  There  is  no  better  or  chea])er  way  to  fer- 
tilize a  meadow  than  this.  But  if  heavy  rains  occur,  the 
flock  should  be  removed  at  once,  and  not  admitted  until 
the  ground  is  dry  again.  Where  a  tough,  thick  sod 
covers  the  ground,  greater  latitude  may  be  permitted. 
There  are  irrigated  meadows  in  parts  of  England  which 
possess  a  sod  so  dense,  and  such  a  heavy  growth  of  grass, 
that  one  acre  inclosed  with  hurdles  is  the  regular  daily 


Fig.  78. — FORM   OF   HURDLE. 


allowance  of  pasture  for  1,000  sheep.  This  is  equal  to 
43'  I,  square  feet  for  each  sheep,  or  a  space  of  4  by  11  feet 
only.  The  droppings  of  such  a  flock,  so  fed,  will  be  a  rich 
and  most  evenly  distributed  manuring,  and  when,  as  in 
the  cases  referred  to,  the  sheep  are  fed  with  oil-cake  or 
grain  in  addition  to  the  pasture,  a  great  increase  of  fer- 
tility results.  But  it  is  questionable  if  we  shall  ever  see 
such  a  meadow  under  our  more  ardent  skies,  unless  it 
be  by  means  of  irrigation  and  fertilizing,  such  as  arc 
there  in  use. 

The  use  of  hurdles,  for  pasturing  sheep  ujhui  irrii^afcil 
meadows,  is  an  absolute  necessity.  Unless  coniincd  in 
this  way,  sheep  will  wander  over  every  portion  of  a  lidd 
in  one  day,  and  picking  out  some  favored  spot  will  n  main 
there,  leaving  other:;.  The  flock  should  then  1)0  confined, 
in  such  a  space  as  they  may  i)asture  down  evenly,  and 


154 


IKRIGATIOK-. 


moYed  daily  to  a  fresh  portion.  There  are  various  kinds 
of  hurdles  used  for  this  purpose.  A  light  hurdle  may  be 
made  of  split  poles  or  laths,  three  inches  in  diameter  for 
the  uprights,  and  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  for  the 
bars.  The  upright  ends  project  below  for  a  foot,  and  are 
pointed.  By  driving  the  pointed  ends  into  the  ground 
with  a  wooden  mallet,  the  hurdles  are  kept  in  place,  and 


Fig.  79. — LOOSE  HURDT,E. 

standing  end  to  end,  form  a  light  portable  fence,  which 
can  be  quickly  taken  down  and  set  up  again.  This  is 
seen  at  fig.  78.  Another  easily  made  and  portable  hur- 
dle consists  of  a  pole  or  scantling,  10  feet  long,  bored 
with  holes,  alternately  in  opposite  directions,  and  12 
inches  apart.  Stakes  five  feet  long  are  put  through  these 
holes,  making  a  hurdle  with  a  cross-section  like  the  let- 


CARK   OP  PASTITBEB   FIELDS. 


155 


ter  X.  See  fig.  79.  These  hurdles  are  merely  placed 
upon  the  ground,  resting  upon  the  ends  of  the  stakes, 
and  may  be  rolled  over  and  over  from  place  to  place.  Set 
end  to  end,  they  form  a  fence  that  is  not  only  impene- 
trable, but  is  uninviting  in  appearance  to  a  sheep  given 
to  transgress  beyond  its  legitimate  bounds.  An  arrange- 
ment is  common  among  shepherds  in  England  by  Avhich 


hurdles  are  used  with  great  econo- 
my in  material  and  labor  of  re- 


a 


H«^- 


6  ^i 


7 


d 


Fig.  80.- 


-PLAN  OF  SETTINO 
HURDLES. 


moval.  A  plot  of  about  a  square 
acre  is  supposed  to  be  inclosed. 
This  maybe  done  by  four  lines  of 
hurdles,  of  200  feet  each.  Half 
an  acre  maybe  fed  by  placing  the 
fourth  line  across  from  the  middle 
of  the  second  and  third  lines  of 
hurdles,  thus  dividing  the  plot. 
The  second  half  acre  is  fed  by  moving  the  fourth  line  to 
the  ends  of  the  second  and  third.  Adjoining  plots  are 
fed  in  the  same  manner  by  moving  three  lines  of  hurdles, 
leaving  one  to  be  one  of  the  sides  of  the  new  plot.  This 
plan  is  followed  until  the  whole  field  has  been  gone  over. 
Fig.  80  exhibits  a  diagram  which  shows  each  plot  num- 
bered successively  as  fed. 

After  a  field  is  pastured,  it  should  be  rolled  with  a 
smooth,  heavy  roller.  Frequent  rolling  is  very  beneficial 
to  an  irrigated  meadow,  smoothing  and  compacting  the 
surface  ;  but  it  should  be  done  only  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  and  in  a  line  with  the  feeding  canals.  The  roller 
may  be  taken  across  the  distril)uting  furrows,  Avhen  they 
ara  properly  made,  but  in  no  otlier  direction  than  directly 
across  them.  Wagons  should  be  used  very  carefully  upon 
meadows,  and  should  never  be  heavily  loaded,  lest  nils 
may  be  cut  to  the  injury  of  the  Purfacc.  Wooden  shod 
sleds  are  preferaljle  to  wagons.  In  case  a  icini)orary  bridire 
across  a  canal  or  feeder  is   needed,  it  may  be  made  by 


156  IRRIGATION. 

placing  a  few  stout  poles  from  cacli  bank  to  the  bottom 
of  the  canal  upon  the  opposite  sides,  crossing  them  and 
placing  upon  them  in  a  line  with  the  canal  a  few  rails  or 
poles  to  make  a  level  passage.  This  leaves  a  passago  for 
the  water  in  the  canal,  and  by  laying  two  or  three  poles 
or  rails  on  the  ground  at  each  side  of  the  canal,  the  edges 
will  be  preserved  from  injury. 

Generally,  the  season  of  irrigation  in  our  Northern 
States  will  be  from  April  to  October.  As  the  climate  be- 
comes warmer,  and  as  the  Southern  States  are  ap- 
proached, the  season  will  be  lengthened  at  each  end,  com- 
mencing earlier  in  the  Spring  and  closing  later  in  Autumn. 
In  some  localities  the  season  will  continue  through  the 
Winter.  But  when  the  water  is  warmer  than  the  soil, 
danger  of  unseasonably  e'xciting  vegetation  is  to  be  ap- 
prehended where  severe  late  frosts  occasionally  occur,  and 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against,  either  by  suspending 
the  irrigation,  or  by  refraining  from  drawing  off  the  water 
from  meadows  that  arc  entirely  submerged,  leaving  the 
covering  of  water  as  a  temporary  protection  until  the  dan- 
ger has  passed.  The  best  times  for  flowing  meadows  are 
at  night,  or  on  cloudy,  calm  days  when  there  is  little 
wind,  or  when  it  is  raining  ;  windy,  clear  days  or  times 
when  the  sun  is  bright,  should  be  avoided.  The  reason 
for  this  is,  that  the  rapid  evaporation  which  would  occur 
on  bright  sunny  or  Avindy  days  would  greatly  depress  the 
temperature  of  the  wet  soil  and  retard  the  growth  of  the 
grass.  A  calm  evening  is  the  most  favorable  time  for  any 
irrigation,  and  nocturnal  watering  tends  to  restrain  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  surface,  which  is  active  upon 
calm,  clear  nights.  Intelligent  judgment  is  to  be  exer- 
cised in  this  regard.  When  water  is  applied  to  a  meadow, 
it  is  better  to  give  it  abundantly  rather  than  sparingly. 
Generally  the  temperature  of  the  water  is,  or  should  be, 
higher  than  that  of  the  subsoil  in  which  the  roots  exist. 
A  copious  irrigation  will  be  sufiBcient  to  overcome  this 


PREVENTIOX    OP   DKAIXAGE.  157 

lower  temperature,  and  raise  it  sensibly,  with  beneficial 
effect.  A  more  moderate  irrigation  would,  on  the  con- 
trary, be  in  danger  of  producing  a  contrary  effect,  be- 
cause it  would  be  insufficient  to  overcome  the  loss  conse- 
quent upon  the  increased  evaporation. 

The  nature  of  the  soil  needs  to  be  studied  in  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  water  that  should  be  applied,  and  the 
periods  of  its  appHcation.  A  porous  soil  should  be  eopi- 
ously  irrigated  for  short  periods  and  at  short  intervals. 
The  object  is  to  supply  nutriment  to  the  grass,  not  to 
cause  an  excessive  filtration  through  the  sul)Soil,  which 
might  carry  away  valuable  fertilizing  matter.  On  a  re- 
tentive soil  the  irrigation  should  be  less  copious,  lest  sur- 
face exhaustion  should  occur  by  washing  away  valuable 
soluble  matters,  and  it  may  be  continued  for  longer  peri- 
ods with  longer  intervals  between  them.  The  usual  peri- 
ods of  irrigation  are,  for  24  to  72  hours,  at  intervals  of 
four  to  twelve  days.  The  condition  of  the  soil  is  the  only 
guide  for  these. 

It  is  necessary  tliat  the  irrigator  exercise  great  watch- 
fulness over  his  field  and  become  acquainted  with  all  its 
special  characteristics,  that  he  may  direct  the  water  in 
this  place  or  that ;  that  he  may  withdraw  hero  or  there  ; 
that  he  may  regulate  the  supply  of  water  according  to 
the  condition  of  the  vegetation,  or  the  state  of  the 
weather,  which  may  change  from  day  to  day.  Wliere  ir- 
rigation is  extensively  practiced,  a  person  whose  sole 
attention  is  directed  to  the  application  of  the  water,  ought 
to  be  employed.  One  capable  man  could  attend  to  sev- 
eral hundred  acres,  and  might  earn  his  season's  wages  })y 
preventing  in  time  one  single  mishap,  whioli  would  prob- 
ably be  overlooked  by  a  person  who  had  the  care  of  many 
other  details  upon  his  mind.  Beside?,  there  Mrc  fr('i|uent 
occasions,  where  water  is  purchased  ])y  the  inch,  in  wliidi 
attention  during  the  night  is  necessary  to  prevent  waste. 
This  special  care  is  indispensable  in  the  irrigation  of  field 


158  IRRIGATION. 

crops,   but  although   not   vital  to    success  in   case   of 
meadows,  is  nevertheless  of  advantage  and  importance. 

Every  Autumn  the  drains,  canals,  feeders,  and  furrows 
should  be  repaired,  sodded,  or  put  in  perfect  order.  The 
soil  is  in  an  unfit  condition  to  be  disturbed  so  early  in 
Spring  as  might  be  necessary,  and  heavy  Winter  rains 
might  easily  devastate  a  system  of  imperfect  or  damaged 
canals  or  ditches.  Where  trees  are  growing  in  the 
meadows,  the  dead  leaves  should  be  carefully  raked  up 
and  removed,  lest  the  drains  be  choked  with  them. 
Coarse  manure  should  never  be  spread  upon  a  water 
meadow.  If  fertihzers  are  needed,  wood  ashes,  guano, 
superphosphate  of  lime,  and  plaster  only  should  be  ap- 
plied. In  the  Spring  of  the  year,  after  the  early  floods 
have  passed  away,  an  occasional  dressing  of  one  or  more 
of  these  may  be  given  when  thought  necessary.  If  coarse 
manure  must  be  used  upon  such  a  meadow,  in  the  absence 
of  all  other  fertilizers,  it  should  be  spread  in  the  Fall  and 
raked  up  carefully  in  the  Spring  with  the  horse-rake, 
leaving  no  litter  upon  the  field. 

RolHng  the  surface  in  the  Spring,  after  the  ground  has 
become  dry,  will  be  imperative.  Any  inequalities  of  the 
surface  not  thus  removed,  should  be  remedied  with  the 
shovel,  first  removing  the  sod  and  then  replacing  it  and 
beating  it  down  firmly.  A  lawn  mower  would  serve  ex- 
cellently to  remove  the  grass  from  the  distributing  fur- 
rows, passing  up  on  one  side  and  down  on  the  other. 
Tliis  should  be  done  as  frequently  as  may  be  needed  to 
keep  the  current  free  from  obstruction.  Otherwise  this 
work  should  be  done  with  the  scythe,  but  the  small  cost 
of  a  lawn-mower  will  be  amplv  returned  in  one  season 
by  the  saving  of  time  in  attending  to  one  acre  of  meadow. 
Irrigation  should  be  suspended  at  least  eight  days  before 
the  crop  is  mown.  The  length  of  this  interval  will  de- 
pend somewhat  upon  circumstances,  which  may  hasten 
91  retard  the  drying  of  the  ground.     If  mown  by  hand. 


SEEDING.  159 

the  field  need  not  be  so  dry  as  if  mown  by  horse  and  ma- 
chine. If  the  weather  is  very  dry,  an  irrigation  of  an 
hour  or  two  during  the  previous  evening  will  moisten  the 
grass  and  greatly  facilitate  the  cutting.  Vakiable  herb- 
age may  be  encouraged  and  useless  weeds  repressed,  to  a 
great  extent,  by  the  use  of  superphosphate  of  lime  as  an 
occasional  dressing.  Excessive  watering  encourages  coarse 
grasses  and  sedges,  and  the  growth  of  these  injurious 
weeds  must  be  carefully  guarded  against,  by  care  in  ap- 
plying the  water  and  by  drainage.  The  early  maturity  of 
the  grass  necessitates  early  cutting.  The  proper  time  for 
cutting  is  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  immediately  after 
the  blossoming  is  past.  Some  of  the  grasses  thrive  best 
"when  cut  befoie  blossoming,  and  recover  the  check  with- 
out loss  of  time.  For  a  perennial  meadow,  this  is  a  mat- 
ter for  observation  and  experience,  and  is  important  to 
study.  Ke-seeding  in  part  will  be  occasionally  needed. 
No  grass  endures  indefinitely,  and  as  the  herbage  dies  out, 
it  must  be  reinforced  by  new  seed.  This  is  to  be  done  by 
spreading  from  time  to  time,  when  found  necessary,  a 
suflBcieut  quantity  of  that  kind  of  seed  which  is  found  to 
grow  most  thriftily  in  the  locality,  and  upon  each  parti- 
cular soil.  These  conditions  are  so  diverse  that  it  would 
be  useless  to  give  even  general  directions,  or  attempt  to 
meet  them.  Each  owner  of  a  meadow  must  in  this  be  a 
law  unto  and  a  judsre  for  himself. 

Some  species  of  jjrass  will  bear  much  more  cutting 
than  others.  One  of  the  best  of  our  common  grasses  for 
irri-ated  meadows  is  Kentucky  Blue-grass.  This  has  been 
found  to  submit  to  frequent  watering,  and  has  made  a 
profuse  growth,  more  especially  late  in  the  season.  A 
watered  meadow,  covered  almost  wholly  with  this  grass 
has  been  in  fine  condition  for  cutting  in  September,  and 
has  yielded  a  srood  crop  of  hay  as  late  as  the  first  week  in 
October.  Aftor  that  date  the  field  furnished  abundant 
pasturage  until  the  severe  frosts  made  the  herbage  uu- 


160  IKRIGATION. 

wholesome.  This  instance  occurred  in  Eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania. Where  meadows  are  only  partially  irrigated  ;  they 
may  be  pastured  freely,  so  long  as  the  soil  is  dry  and  is 
not  "poached "  or  cut  up  by  the  hoofs  of  cattle  or  horses. 
Such  meadows  should  be  laid  out  with  broad,  shallow 
water-furrows,  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the 
edges  being  broken  down  by  the  trampHug  of  the  stock. 
The  late  pasturing  of  meadows  by  sheep  should  never  be 
permitted,  unless  the  growth  is  thick  and  heavy,  as  these 
animals  nip  the  grass  very  closely  and  would  expose  the 
roots  to  the  frost,  endangering  the  unequal  heaving  of 
the  surface  during  the  Winter.  But  as  cattle  are  accus- 
tomed to  bite  here  and  there,  and  leave  scattered  bunches 
of  the  rejected  herbage,  it  should  be  made  a  business,  not 
to  be  neglected,  to  go  over  these  with  a  mower  and  level 
them  before  the  season  is  closed.  The  droppings  of  the 
cattle  should  be  broken  up  finely  and  scattered  over  the 
surface  before  they  become  frozen.  Early  in  Spring,  be- 
fore any  water  is  given,  the  meadows  should  be  put  into 
the  best  condition,  the  surface  cleared  of  rubbish,  and 
rolled,  the  ditches  and  furrows  examined  and  repaired, 
and  the  drains  cleared  if  this  is  needed.  It  is  at  this 
time  that  any  seed  or  fertilizers  that  may  be  thought 
necessary,  should  be  given.  Lastly,  the  fences  should  be 
made  perfectly  safe.  The  trespassing  of  heavy  stock  upon 
a  newly  watered  meadow  might  do  very  serious  and  very 
extensive  injury. 

When  the  grass  is  nearly  ready  for  cutting,  no  water 
should  be  given.  In  general,  the  wacering  should  be  so 
timed,  that  the  growth  of  grass  is  pushed  forward  as 
quickly  as  possible  in  its  earlier  stages,  and  when  the 
herbage  is  short.  When  the  ground  is  well  covered  and 
shaded,  a  good  soaking  will  supply  the  soil  with  sufficient 
moisture  to  mature  the  crop  of  grass.  Then  ten  days  or 
two  weeks  may  elapse  between  the  last  watering  and  the 
cutting.    As  soon  as  the  hay  is  made  and  removed,  water 


FERTILIZIXG.  161 

should  be  given  immediately,  but  uevcr  in  tlie  day-time, 
unless  the  weather  is  cloudy,  or  it  is  ruining.  In  the 
evening,  after  sundown,  the  Avater  may  be  given,  and  soon 
after  sunrise  it  should  be  turned  oli,  unless  it  is  in  very 
moderate  quantity. 

When  a  water  meadoA^  is  flooded,  it  is  necessary  to 
watch  the  water,  and  the  moment  a  white  scum  is  ob- 
served to  float  upon  the  surface,  the  water  should  be 
drawn  off.  Meadows  that  are  flooded  by  streams,  should 
not  be  watered  in  time  of  freshets,  if  there  is  any  sedi- 
ment in  the  water,  unless  very  early  in  the  Spring,  or 
immediately  after  hay  has  been  made.  If  the  grass  is  of 
any  considerable  length,  the  suspended  matter  Avill  be  re- 
tained amongst  it  and  make  it  gritty  or  sandy,  and  seri- 
ously interfere  with  the  cutting.  The  flooding  of  a  water 
meadow  is  preferably  done  during  the  Winter,  when  the 
solid  matter,  deposited  by  the  water,  is  of  the  greatest 
value  as  a  fertilizer ;  the  Summer- watering  is  to  supply 
the  needed  moisture  only,  and  not  to  fertilize  the  crop  in 
the  sense  of  adding  manurial  matter.  Summer  irrigation 
is  therefore  only  moderate  in  quantity,  and  an  excess  of 
water  will  be  injurious  at  this  season. 

The  most  suitable  fertilizers  for  irrigated  meadows  are 
nitrate  of  soda  and  Peruvian  guano,  used  alternately,  and 
not  mixed  togetlier.  Whe^'c  the  growth  of  grass  is  forced 
so  much  as  under  irrigation,  active  and  soluble  fertilizers 
given  in  small  quantities,  and  frequently,  are  reipiired. 
The  proper  periods  for  tlieir  application  arc  early  in 
Spring,  and  immediately  after  the  cutting  of  the  grass; 
80  pounds  per  acre,  or  half  a  pound  to  the  square-rod  of 
either,  will  be  a  sufficient  quantity  to  a))ply  at  once,  and 
the  repetition  of  this  top-dressing  may  be  given  only 
when  the  condition  of  the  grass  scorns  to  call  for  it. 
Every  fifth  or  sixth  year  a  dressing  of  lime  may  be  given 
in  Winter,  and  sliould  be  spread  uf)on  the  snow  if  pos- 
sible, (for  the  preservation  of  the  surface)  rather  than  in 


162  IRRIGATION. 

any  other  manner.    Where  it  is  known  that  lime  is  effec- 
tive upon  the  soil,  it  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
upon  other  lands  ;  if  used  experimentally,  40  bushels  per 
acre  may  be  taken  as  the  normal  quantity.     The  needs  of 
the  soil  as  to  fertilizing  may  be  calculated  as  proportion- 
ate to  the  drafts  made  upon  it.     Where  hay  is  removed 
and  the  meadow  is  not  pastured,  at  least  the  amount  of 
fertilizing  matter  mentioned  above  will  be  required,  or 
even  more,  if  the  grass  crojDs  are  heavy  and  of  good  qual- 
ity.    If  sheep  are  pastured  upon  a  meadow  in  the  day- 
time, and  fed  at  night  in  yards,  with  bran,  grain,  or  any 
extra  food,  or  if  dairy  cows  are  so  pastured  and  fed,  the 
need  for  fertilizers  will  be  small,  or  none  may  be  required. 
A  reasonable  consideration  should  be  given  to  this  point, 
which  will  be  an  easy  matter  for  the  intelligent  farmer. 
In  pasturing  these  meadows,  it  will  be  best  to  stock 
them  closely,  and  use  only  a  portion  at  a  time,  that  the 
grass  may  be  eaten  off  clean,  and  not  trampled  down.    By 
dividing  the  meadow  into  sections,  it  will  be  easy  to  ar- 
range for  pasturing  one  part,  Avhile  the  others  are  either 
under  water  or  in  different  stages  of  growth.     As  a  gen- 
eral rule  it  is  advisable  not  to  pasture  sheep  freely  upon 
watered  meadows,  unless  they  are  fed  for  the  butcher. 
When  fed  for  fattening,  they  make  very  rapid  growth; 
the  lush  herbage  causes  an  excessive  secretion  of  bile, 
which  at  first  assists  greatly  in  the  formation  of  a  high- 
colored  fat,  but  after  this  favorable   stage  is  passed,  the 
blood  may,  and  will  probably,  become  affected  and  inflam- 
matory disease  appear ;  or  the  sheep  will  almost  certainly 
become  infected  with  flukes,  and  the  rot  will  inevitably 
result.     Only  experienced  sheep  owners  should  make  use 
of   pastures  irrigated  by  streams,  and    they  should  be 
watchful  not  to  overpass  the  point  of  safe  exposure  to  the 
dangerous  feeding.    Wlien  the  meadows  are  watered  from 
wells,  through  pipes,  as  described  on  page  55,  this  cau- 
tion may  not  be  applicable. 


lERIGATION    OF   ARABLE    LANDS.  163 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

IRRIGATION    OF    ARABLE    LANDS. 

Few  of  us  ever  consider  that  the  larger  portion  of  the 
arable  surface  of  the  United  States  is  doomed  to  com- 
parative sterility,  unless  brought  under  systematic  and 
permanent   irrigation,     ^yest  of  the  100th  meridian  of 
longitude,  almost  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
from  our  southern  to  our  northern  boundary,  stretches  a 
vast  tract  of  land,  rich  in  every  element  of  fertility  but 
moisture,  and  useless  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture  in 
its  present  condition.     But  while  the  immense  tract  is 
arid  in  its  climate,  and  for  all  practical  purposes  it  may 
be  said  to  be  absolutely  rainless,  yet  there  flows,  across  or 
beneath  its  surface,  the  water-shed  of  a  vast  and  intricate 
range  of  mountains,  snow-clad  during  a  part  or  the  whole 
of  the  year,  and  which  divides  it  into  two  portions.     It 
needs  but  to  capture  this  water,  and  spread  it  over  the 
surface,  to  insure  abundant  and  certain  harvests.     It  may 
surprise  a  farmer,  used  to  depend  upon  the  changeful 
seasons  of  the  Eastern  part  of  the  country,  to  learn  that 
upon  these  arid  lands  there  may  be  grown  luxurious  cro])s 
of  grass,  grain  or  roots,  with  the  greatest  certainty  ;  that 
in  this  climate,  the  farmer  who  has  brought   the  waters 
beneath  his  yoke,  has  secured  literally  and  naturally  the 
fulfillment  of   the  promise,  that   seed-time  and  harvest 
should  never  more   fail,  while  he  himself  enjoys  it  only 
in  part  and  accidentally,  and  occasionally  fails  completely 
to  realize  it.     But  this  is  the  fact,  for  drouth  aud  aridity 
arc  entirely  subjugated  l^y  means  of  irrigation,  and   are, 
strangely  enough,  only  sources  of  anxiety  and  loss  in  those 
districts  were  rain  falls,  and  the  farmer  is  subject  to  con- 
ditions of  climate  which  he  can  neither  foresee  nor  con- 
trol.    Seed-time  and  harvest  are  only  sure  where  irriga- 
tion is  systematically  used  by  the  cultivator. 


164  IRRIGATION. 

But  the  irrigation  of  lands  of  the  character  under  con- 
sideration, can  only  be  profitably  undertaken  by  the  com- 
bined effort  of  a  community.  The  necessary  engineering 
works,  such  as  dams,  canals,  sluices,  water-ways,  and 
aqueducts,  can  only  be  constructed  by  means  of  ample 
capital,  and  for  the  use  of  numerous  farmers,  cultivating 
in  the  aggregate  many  thousands  of  acres.  In  such  cases, 
the  total  cost  divided  among  the  farms  to  be  irrigated, 
would  leave  for  each  one  a  sum  far  less  than  that  needed 
to  clear  a  farm  of  equal  size  from  the  forest.  The  actual 
cost  of  irrigating  works  of  a  permanent  character,  has 
been  found  to  range  from  so  small  a  sum  as  II  per  acre, 
upward.  That  is,  a  community  of  farmers,  numbering 
some  hundreds,  may  construct  the  necessary  dams,  canals, 
sluices  and  feed-gates  to  irrigate  10,000  to  50,000  acres  of 
land,  at  a  total  cost  not  to  exceed  $5  per  acre,  where  the 
conditions  of  water  supply,  character  of  soil,  and  surface 
of  the  land  are  favorable.  To  clear  an  acre  of  average 
timber  land,  will  cost  813  to  $25  per  acre,  and  the  money 
value  of  the  damage  incurred  annually,  by  reason  of  the 
stumps  and  roots  which  interfere  with  cultivation,  until 
they  have  rotted  away  or  have  been  removed  with  infinite 
labor,  may  easily  amount  to  $20  per  acre  more.  To  irri- 
gate a  farm  permanently,  may  then  cost  but  one-eighth 
of  the  sum  necessary  to  clear  it  of  timber.  This  estimate 
will  allow  of  substantially  constructed  works,  which  will 
require  but  little  repair,  or  renewal,  to  keep  them  in  per- 
manently good  condition.  Large  tracts  of  land  have  been 
supplied  with  water  for  irrigation,  at  a  much  less  cost 
than  this,  in  some  cases  even  so  low  as  25  to  50  cents  per 
acre  ;  but  this  cost  covers  only  tlie  construction  of  the 
main  supply  ditch,  and  not  the  interior  ditches,  which,  to 
be  permanent,  should  be  well  laid  out,  and  properly  con- 
structed. It  has  been  sufficiently  well  shown,  however, 
that  a  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  can  be  brought  to 
and  spread  over  a  farm  upon  our  dry  jolains,  at  a  total  ex- 


CHEAPNESS    OF   IRPwIGATION.  165 

penditure  of  capital  per  acre  not  any  greater  than  the 
annual  rent  paid  per  acre  for  irrigating  water  in  European 
countries.  It  is  true  that  we  have  cheap  land  ujion  which 
to  construct  the  ditches,  and  that  so  far,  for  want  of  pre- 
occupation of  the  land,  the  course  of  the  canal  has  been 
made  to  follow  the  meanderings  of  the  line  of  grade 
chosen,  and  to  save  the  cost  of  expensive  aqueducts  across 
valleys  and  depressions,  and  that  economy  in  the  use  of 
the  water  has  not  been  an  object  of  serious  consideration; 
but  it  may  be  some  years  or  even  centuries  before  the  cost 
of  irrigation  with  us  can  reach  $5  to  810  per  acre  yearly, 
which  is  the  cost  of  water  supplied  by  canals  of  Europe. 
This  cheapness  of  irrigation  must  undoubtedly  give  a 
great  impetus  to  the  settlement  of  lands  upon  the  plains 
and  great  valleys,  so  soon  as  those  who  are  now  occasion- 
ally brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin,  by  the  failure  of  their 
crops,  can  be  brought  to  understand  its  cheapness,  its  ease 
of  application,  and  the  certainty  of  crops  secured  by  its 
means.  The  numerous  settlements  that  have  been  made 
in  California,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  other  localities,  and  the 
success  which  has  attended  these  pioneer  efforts,  in  spite 
of  all  the  drawbacks  incident  to  a  want  of  knowledge  of 
the  peculiarities  of  the  climate  and  the  soil,  and  inex- 
perience in  the  art  of  irrigation,  will  tend  greatly  to 
attract  men  toward  new  enterprises  in  this  direction. 
The  evident  advantages  of  a  system  of  agriculture,  in 
which  water  can  be  supplied  to  the  fields  at  will,  and  de- 
pendence upon  a  fickle  and  uncertain  or  arid  climate  is 
avoided,  will  have  numerous  attractions  to  men  who  have 
seen  the  fruits  of  their  labor  perish,  year  after  year,  either 
by  drouth  or  excess  of  rain  ;  aiid  as  soon  as  trustwortliy 
and  exact  information  can  be  procured,  thousands  of  set- 
tlers will  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  offered  to  tlicm 
by  a  cheap,  fertile  soil,  clear  skies,  genial  climate,  and 
water  constantly  at  hand,  and  under  the  most  perfect 
control. 


1 66  IRRIGATION. 

IrrigatioT}  of  land  is  an  art  that  has  existed  for  many 
centurieti  previouo  toany  aiithentic  written  history.  The 
traditions  of  the  Chinese  people  are  very  ancient,  and  ir- 
rigation is  mentioned  in  their  most  ancient  traditional 
iiistory.  as  being  extensively  practiced.  In  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Eastern  Asia,  agriculture 
depended  almost  wholly  upon  irrigation,  and  still  so  de- 
pends in  these  lands  where  the  people  have  survived  the 
political  changes  of  thousands  of  years.  Virgil  in  his 
rural  poems  thus  describes  exactly  the  processes  which  are 
followed  now.  ''He  leads  the  stream  and  flowing  rivu- 
lets, to  the  growing  corn,  and  when  the  burnt  field  dries 
up,  the  herbs  dying,  he  leads  the  water  and  cools  the 
parched  fields  with  rills."  The  irrigation  of  gardens, 
vineyards,  and  fields,  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
Scriptures,  one  of  the  earliest  books  speaks  of  it  and  one 
of  the  prophets  refers  to  "furrows  of  the  plantation." 
And  so  agriculture  has  continued  to  the  present  day,  the 
necessities  of  the  majority  of  the  cultivators  of  the  soil 
in  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  and  the  natural  opportunities 
possessed  by  them,  combining  to  render  the  system  vital 
to  their  existense.  When  the  Spaniards  occupied  the  new 
found  continent,  they  introduced  their  system  of  irriga- 
tion wherever  the  dryness  of  the  climate  demanded  it. 
In  Ohili,  Peru,  Central  America,  and  Mexico,  the  canals 
and  ditches  made  by  the  early  Spanish  settlers  remain, 
and  many  are  still  in  use  ;  the  systems  adopted  in  Cali- 
fornia, Texas,  Kew  Mexico,  and  Colorado,  are  mainly 
copied  from  the  ancient  models.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say  that  these  models  are  not  of  the  best  construction, 
nor  at  all  satisfactory  to  the  engineer  of  the  present  day, 
but  they  are  of  cheap  and  easy  construction. 

The  settlement  of  the  drier  regions  of  our  territory, 
adds  another  instance  to  those  of  past  history,  of  the 
reclamation  of  deserts  by  irrigation.  It  will  be  of  in- 
terest to  glance  over  what  has  already  been  done  in  this 


WHAT   HAS   BEEN  DONE  IN   COLORADO.  1C7 

way,  before  considering  the  possibilities  of  the  future.  The 
actual  history  of  irrigation  in  the  United  States  begins  with 
the  occupation  of  Utah  by  the  Mormons  in  1840.  At  that 
time  the  territory  was  a  waste  of  barren  land  and  sage  brush. 
In  1868,  twenty  two  years  after  the  first  settlement  of  Salt 
Lake  valley,  93,799  acres  of  land  were  under  irrigation 
at  an  expense  of  nearly  $250,000,  and  works  were  in 
course  of  construction  which,  when  completed,  would 
greatly  enlarge  the  area  of  land  under  cultivation.  With 
the  exception  of  the  continuance  of  some  of  the  irrigation 
works  constructed  by  the  Spaniards  in  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  and  California,  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago, 
and  which  have  been  in  use  up  to  the  time  when  the  ter- 
ritory came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States,  but 
little  was  done  in  the  way  of  irrigation,  until  the  occupa- 
tion of  Colorado  and  the  adjacent  territories,  when  these 
were  rendered  accessible  by  the  opening  of  the  Pacific 
railroads.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  a  great  impetus 
was  given  to  the  settlement  of  lands  adjacent  to  the 
rivers,  and  which  could  be  brought  under  irrigation,  and 
several  extensive  works  were  constructed.  Amongst  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  Platte  River  canal,  24  miles  long, 
irrigating  50,000  acres  of  land,  and  supplying  the  city  of 
Denver.  Originally,  the  canal  was  10  feet  wide  and  2 
feet  deep  at  the  head,  but  has  been  enlarged  to  18  feet  in 
width  and  3  feet  in  depth.  The  fall  is  irregular,  varying 
from  6  feet  to  18  inches  per  mile.  The  cost  was  $100,000; 
a  very  excessive  amount,  but  probably  unavoidal)ly  so  on 
account  of  its  unscientific  and  wasteful  mode  of  con- 
struction. 

The  Ta])le  Mountain  Ditch  Company  Canal,  near  C,o\- 
den  City,  is  nearly  20  miles  long  ;  12  to  15  feet  wide  at 
the  surface,  and  0  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  2  foot  deep. 
The  fall  is  19  feet  to  the  mile,  in  portions,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  tliis  excessive  slope  the  ditcli  is  destroying 
itself  very  rapidly.     A  branch  is  2'  ],  miles   long.     The 


168  lERIGATIOX. 

cost  was,  (in  1865),  about  $15,000.  From  its  faulty  con' 
truction,  it  was  dear,  and  will  be  costly  to  maintain. 
The  charge  for  water  is  11.50  per  inch,  per  year ;  equal 
to  about  $1  per  acre,  yearly. 

The  Farmers'  Ditch,  also  near  Golden  City,  is  11  miles 
long,  8  to  12  feet  wide  on  the  surface,  and  6  feet  at  the 
bottom,  and  18  inches  deep.  Its  cost  was  $10,000  ;  it 
supplies  nearly  40,000  acres,  at  a  cost  of  about  $1  per 
acre,  yearly. 

At  Greeley,  on  the  Cache  la  Poudre,  there  are  two  irri- 
gating canals,  one  on  the  south  side  of  the  Cache  la 
Poudre  river,  10  miles  long,  which  supplies  the  town  and 
adjacent  farming  land,  it  is  15  feet  wide  on  the  bottom 
for  8  miles,  has  a  fall  of  3  feet  to  the  mile,  and  the  water 
is  usually  run  3  feet  deep  in  the  irrigating  season.  This 
canal  has  cost  about  115,000.  The  main  canal  is  32  miles 
long,  and  is  taken  out  of  the  Cache  la  Poudre  river,  15 
miles  west  of  Greeley,  on  the  north  side  of  the  river. 
It  waters  over  20,000  acres  of  land,  of  which  10,000  have 
been  brought  under  cultivation.  It  is  25  feet  wide  on 
the  bottom  for  3  miles,  the  next  5  miles  it  is  24  feet 
wide,  20  feet  wide  at  the  end  of  the  20th  mile,  and  gradu- 
ally decreases  to  10  feet  at  the  30th  mile.  It  is  4  feet 
deep  to  the  20th  mile  ;  its  fall  is  3  feet  to  the  mile, 
velocity  3  miles  per  hour,  or  4  and  "|  ,„„  feet  per  second, 
slope  of  banks  1  to  1;  total  cost,  including  dam  in  river, 
$60,000.  The  sectional  area  of  the  portion  that  is  24 
feet  wide  on  the  bottom  is  112  feet,  or  16,128  square  inches, 
and  having  a  velocity  of  3  miles  per  hour,  and  it  being 
generally  considered  that  one  inch  of  water  is  sufficient 
for  each  acre  under  cultivation,  this  canal  is  large  enough 
to  water  16,000  acres.  Each  owner  of  an  80  acre  lot 
under  this  canal  has  now  paid  $250  for  his  water  right, 
which  belongs  to  the  land  as  a  perpetual  easement,  and 
smaller  and  larger  lots  have  paid  in  proportion.  The 
canal  is  kept  in  repair,  and  a  man  paid  for  superintending 


SMALL   ErrENT    OE    IRRIGABLE    LAND.  1 G9 

it  duriiig  the  irrigating  season,  by  a  tax  on  each  80  acres 
of  §8  to  S12  annually.  The  superintendent  measures  the 
water  into  each  '"lateral"  ditch  along  the  line  of  the 
main  canal,  according  to  the  number  of  water  rights  jiaid 
for  in  any  year,  and  the  farmers  divide  it  from  tlie  small 
ditches  themselves,  according  to  what  each  is  entitled 
to.  Usually  the  farmers  taking  water  from  one  "  lateral " 
form  a  company  and  build  their  main  and  sub-laterals, 
and  deliver  to  each  his  just  proportion  of  water.  Some 
of  the  laterals  are  4  miles  long  and  have  cost  over  Si, 000. 
The  whole  system  is  working  satisfactorily  to  all,  and  the 
land  is  constantly  appreciating  in  value,  as  the  amount  of 
land  that  will  eventually  be  brought  under  cultivation  is 
limited  to  the  amount  of  water  in  the  stroan)S.  Probably 
not  more  than  two  million  of  the  G7  million  acres  in  this 
State  can  possibly  be  farmed,  as  the  combined  sectional 
area  of  all  the  streams  at  '"'high  water "  is  not  over 
1,500,000  inches,  with  a  velocity  of  3  miles  per  hour,  and 
on  an  average  it  takes  one  inch  of  water  running  at  that 
rate  for  each  acre  under  cultivation.  For  instance,  a 
farmer  having  100  acres  in  cultivation,  gets  100  inches  of 
water  with  this  velocity,  and  he  can  get  over,  or  water 
his  crop  in  about  10  or  12  days.  Usually  wheat  is  water- 
ed here  but  two  or  three  times,  as  there  is  rain  or  snow 
enough  in  the  Spring,  (April  or  ^lay),  to  bring  it  up  so 
that  it  will  cover  the  ground.  Corn,  potatoes,  and  other 
late  crops  are  watered  oftener,  but  require  less  per  acre 
than  wheat.  The  above  particulars  are  given  by  Mr.  J. 
D.  Buckley,  engineer  of  the  Greeley  Colony. 

The  Canal  of  The  Saint  Louis  Western  Colony,  at  Ilvans, 
with  its  branches,  is  40  miles  long,  10  feet  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, with  slopes  of  l'|,  to  1,  (or  18 inches horizcnital  to  I'-J 
feet  perpendicular),  with  a  Avater  fcction  of  o;]  s(|uare  feet, 
and  a  fall  of  7  feet  per  mile.  The  cost  of  the  Avholc  system 
is  less  than  $;2r),000  for  a  total  length  of  40  miles,  and 
115,200  acres  arc  covered  by  it. 
8 


iTO  JBRIGATI05?. 

A  private  ditch,  belonging  to  Mr.  G.  H.  Church,  of 
Boulder  Co.,  is  10  miles  long,  5  feet  wide  and  1  foot  deep. 
The  fall  is  excessive,  viz. :  13  feet  to  the  mile.  It  cost 
$1,000.  It  is  connected  with  a  reservoir,  as  its  supply  is 
not  continuous,  and  a  reserve  is  thus  maintained.  Forty 
acres  of  land,  with  the  farm  stock  are  watered,  and  a  fish 
13ond  is  supplied  by  it.  The  cost  of  watering  is  from  50 
cents  to  $1  per  acre,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
season. 

The  Upper  Platte  and  Bear  Creek  Ditch,  is  owned  by 
a  company  in  Arapahoe  Co.  It  is  5  miles  long,  16  feet 
wide,  and  20  inches  deep  at  the  head,  diminishing  to- 
wards the  foot.  The  cost  of  maintenance,  which  is  as- 
sessed yearly  upon  the  owners,  averages  $30  to  $35  for 
144  square  inches  of  water,  or  a  supply  sufficient  for  150 
or  IGO  acres.  Interest  on  the  original  cost  must  he  added 
to  this  annual  charge,  to  reach  the  yearly  cost  of  water- 
ing. No  information  as  to  the  original  cost  has  been 
given.  There  are  many  other  irrigation  works,  con- 
structed either  by  joint  effort  or  by  incorporated  com- 
panies, who  lease  the  water  at  a  remunerative  yearly  rent. 
These  rents  vary  from  $1.50  to  $3.00  an  acre  per  year  for 
each  square  inch,  which  is  equal  to  $1  to  $2  per  acre  of 
land  watered.  The  cost  of  the  manipulation  of  the  wa- 
ter, after  it  is  received  by  the  farmer,  will  obviously  vary 
with  the  character  of  the  crops.  On  the  average  50 cents 
per  acre,  annually,  will  cover  all  expenses  of  distribution. 

As  an  instance  of  what  has  been  and  may  be  done  in 
localities  where  partial  irrigation  may  be  usefully  applied, 
a  case  which  occurred  in  the  Arkansas  valley,  in  Central 
Kansas,  may  be  cited.  Here  is  a  broad,  level,  fertile 
valley,  some  miles  in  width,  with  genily  rising  table  lands 
on  either  flank.  Flowing  through  the  center  is  the 
Arkansas  river,  a  broad,  magnificent  stream,  which 
neither  floods  nor  dwindles  in  volume  in  the  whole  year. 
For  Bcveral  hundred  miles  after  it  issues  from  the  mouu- 


CALIPORKIAX    EXTERPEISE.  171 

tains  it  flows  through  rich,  level  bottoms,  in  Colorado  and 
A\'estern  Kansas,  most  of  which  are  too  dry  for  cultiva- 
tion without  irrigation,  and  now  afford  only  pasturage. 
In  Central  Kansas  it  jjasses  through  a  rich  and  beautiful 
country,  now  Avell  populated,  on  the  verge  of  the  dry 
country,  but  within  the  arable  region.  At  Hutchinson, 
in  Reno  Co.,  the  enterprising  inhabitants  have  cut  a 
canal  from  the  river,  for  a  length  of  two  miles,  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  water  power  for  factories,  and  mills. 
The  fall  of  the  river  is  8  feet  per  mile,  which  is  sufficient 
to  carry  the  water  in  the  course  of  a  few  miles  on  to  the 
high  uplands,  and  to  water  these  as  well  as  the  broad 
valley.  At  present  there  is  no  intention  of  using  the 
water  for  irrigation,  but  should  it  become  necessary  or 
desirable,  it  is  here  shown  that  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
water  can  be  obtained  at  nominal  expense  to  supply  every 
need  of  the  farmer  in  the  dryest  seasons.  Also  it  is  clear 
that  the  whole  of  this  grand  valley  may  be  made  available 
for  farms.  This  is  one  instance  only  of  what  may,  and 
in  time  undoubtedly  will,  bo  done  in  many  places  where 
there  is  only  a  partial  and  occasional  use  for  water. 

Irrigation  in  California  has,  so  far,  been  done  by  in- 
dividual enterprise.  In  1871,  there  were  915  irrigating 
ditches,  supplying  only  90,000  acres  of  land,  or  on  an 
average,  but  100  acres  to  each  ditch.  The  ditches,  with 
few  exceptions,  are  rude  affairs,  and  of  inconsiderable 
length.  The  exceptions  are  as  follows  :  The  San  Joaquin 
and  Kings  River  Canal  Company,  is  38' |,  miles  long,  and 
is  supplied  by  the  San  Joaquin  river.  It  is  55  feet  wide, 
four  feet  deep,  with  a  fall  of  one  foot  to  the  mile.  15,000 
acres  are  irrigated  by  this,  and  cultivated  in  wheat,  bar- 
ley and  alfalfa,  and  water  enough  for  00,000  acres  more 
can  be  supplied.  The  extension  of  the  canal  40  miles 
further,  is  proposed,  by  which  3^5,000  (?)  acres  can  bo 
irri-ated.  The  cost  so  far  is  stated  to  be  r)()(),(iO(».  (an 
enormously  excessive  cost  under  any  circumstances),  and 


172  IRRIGATION. 

the  income,  in  1873,  for  water  rent,  was  less  than  110,000. 
It  is  evident  tliat  for  some  reason,  probably  inexperience, 
and  poor  engineering,  the  cost  of  this  canal  has  been 
ruinously  great.  The  Kings  River  Company  Canal  when 
completed,  is  expected  to  water  300,000  acres  (?).  There 
seems  to  be  a  serious  error  in  the  stated  capacity  of  these 
canals  as  will  be  explained  in  a  future  chapter.  It  is  30 
feet  wide,  3  feet  deep,  with  a  full  of  one  foot  to  the  mile. 
In  the  same  valley  the  canal  of  Messrs.  Chapman,  Miller 
and  Lux,  taps  the  San  Joaquin  river,  and  runs  30  miles 
down  the  valley,  supplying  30,000  acres.  It  is  35  feet 
wide,  3  feet  deep,  and  falls  one  foot  to  the  mile.  Another 
canal,  owned  by  Friedlander  &  Co.,  takes  water  from  the 
Fresno  river,  at  the  foot  hills  of  the  same  valley,  and 
supplies  40,000  acres.  This  ditch  is  10  miles  long,  40  feet 
wide,  and  has  a  fall  of  about  10  inches  to  the  mile.  A 
reservoir,  connected  with  the  canal  is  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,  100  feet  wide  and  6  feet  deep.  Numerous  farms, 
gardens,  and  orchards  are  irrigated  by  the  smaller  ditches, 
and  some  by  wells.  San  Francisco  is  chiefly  supplied 
with  vegetables  from  irrigated  gardens,  many  of  which 
are  cultivated  by  Chinese.  A  small-fruit  plantation  of  8 
acres  is  watered  by  a  4'|  ^  horse-power  engine,  from  a  well. 
In  all  the  instances  referred  to,  irrigation  is  successful  and 
profitable.  But  in  California,  while  irrigation  is  as  yet 
in  embryo,  its  possibilities  are  immense.  The  interests 
involved,  however,  are  so  vast  and  complicated,  the  min- 
ing interests  clashing  seriously  with  those  of  the  farmers, 
that  legislation  will  undoubtedly  need  to  be  invoked  be- 
fore such  measures,  as  will  be  satisfactory  and  effective, 
can  be  applied  to  the  gigantic  natural  facilities  and  op- 
portunities afforded  in  the  valleys  of  this  State. 

This  naturally  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  owner- 
ship of  the  water,  for  from  this  question  will  probably 
arise  much  difficulty  and  litigation.  It  is  anew  element, 
depending  at  present  upon  the  principles  of  common 


A   CONGEESSIOXAL   COMMISSION.  173 

law  ;  no  statutory  provisions  having  as  yet  been  made  to 
meet  the  necessarily  involved  interests  which  will  be 
affected  by  it.  Perhaps  the  only  decision  which  relates 
to  this  is  cited  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Report 
of  1872,  as  follows  : 

*'It  has  sometimes  been  made  a  ({uestiou  whether  a 
riparian  proprietor  can  direct  water  from  a  running  stream 
for  purposes  of  irrigation. 

''  The  language  of  the  Court  as  best  defining  the  prin- 
ciples governing  this  subject  is  as  follows,  to  wit:  That 
an  indi^-idual  owning  a  spring  on  his  land,  from  which 
water  flows  in  a  current  through  his  neighbor's  land, 
would  have  the  right  to  use  the  whole  of  it,  if  necessary, 
to  satisfy  his  natural  wants.  He  may  consume  all  the 
water  for  his  domestic  purposes,  including  water  for  his 
stock.  If  he  desires  to  use  it  for  irrigation,  and  there  is 
a  lower  proprietor  to  whom  its  use  is  essential  to  supply 
his  natural  wants,  or  for  his  stock,  he  must  use  the  water 
so  as  to  leave  enotigh  for  such  lower  proprietor.  Where 
the  stream  is  small  and  does  not  supply  more  than  suftic- 
ient  to  answer  the  natural  wants  of  the  different  pro- 
prietors living  on  it,  none  of  the  proprietors  can  use  the 
water  for  irrigation  or  manufactures." 

This  is  so  clearly  inadequate  to  meet  the  urgent  neces- 
sities of  the  case,  that  the  immediate  attention  of  Con- 
gress, and  the  various  State  Legislatures,  is  peremptorily 
called  for.  Fortunately,  a  beginning  has  been  made, 
and  a  Commission  was  organized  by  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress, approved  March  3,  1873,  to  examine  the  great 
valleys  of  California,  with  reference  to  the  construction 
of  a  system  of  irrigation.  The  report  of  this  Com- 
mission is  published  in  the  yearly  vohiino  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  1871.  The  conclusions 
reached  may  be  seriously  questioned  in  many  points,  l)ut 
on  the  whole  are,  as  might  havi;  been  cxpectod,  favoral)lo 
both  to  the  profitableness   und  feasibility  of    irrigation 


174  IREIGATION. 

works,  and  to  the  interference  of  the  National  and  State 
governments,  and  their  control  over  the  distribution  of 
the  water.  In  favor  of  government  control  there  is  both 
reason  and  precedent.  By  no  other  authority  could  the 
conflicting  interests  of  miners,  agriculturists,  and  owners 
of  land  to  be  injured  or  benefited  by  the  entei-prise,  be 
properly  reconciled.  In  Europe,  the  supreme  control  is 
exercised  by,  and  the  ownership  of  the  water  vested  in, 
the  State,  The  French  government  in  1669,  by  special 
law,  reserved  the  ownership  of  all  rivers  and  streams, 
and  grants  concessions  to  irrigating  companies  under  re- 
strictions. In  Italy,  the  State  has  always  exercised  this 
ownership,  and  in  Venice  the  springs,  and  even  the  rain- 
fall, so  far  as  it  can  be  stored  in  reservoirs,  have  been  held 
to  be  public  property.  In  India,  the  springs  and  rainfall 
are  accumulnted  in  reservoirs,  controlled  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  river  systems  are  also  owned  by  it ;  not 
only  this,  but  the  details  of  the  distribution  of  the  water 
are  also  directed  by  government  officials.  This  is  made 
necessary,  however,  by  the  utter  incapacity  of  the  ignor- 
ant inhabitants  to  manage  anything  for  themselves,  that 
calls  for  more  than  a  very  low  degree  of  intelligence.  Lest, 
however,  it  might  be  urged  that  government  ownership  and 
supervision,  is  likely  to  lead  to  failure,  the  actual  results 
attained  in  India  may  be  very  properly  here  cited.  Dur- 
ing recent  years,  the  British  Government  has  spent  about 
$70,000,000  in  irrigating  works,  and  others  are  in  pro- 
gress of  construction  which  will  require  half  as  much 
more  to  complete  them.  In  almost  every  instance  the 
investments  have  been  profitable,  and  in  some  cases 
enormously  so,  both  in  the  way  of  water  rent,  and  in  ser- 
vice to  the  cultivators  of  the  soil.  The  total  annual 
revenue  to  the  government  from  the  works,  is  more  than 
$5,000,000,  or  7^\^  per  cent  on  the  cost.  In  one  case  only 
has  there  been  a  loss.  The  capital  expended  in  the 
largest  works,  and  the  annual  revenue  from  them,  is  given 


lEEIGATIOX    IN    INDIA.  175 

in  the  following  table,  which  is  derived  from  the  official 
reports  of  the  East  Indian  Goverument  : 

Capital  invested.  Annual  revenue. 

North  Western  Provinces $17,8^7, 225  S'/j  per  cent. 

Punjaub 15,671,000  5  " 

Madras 9,467,200  22^4  " 

Bombay  and  Sind 11,113,040  12  " 

Ganges  Canal 14,400,830  4>;2  " 

Eastern  Jumna  Canal 2,:]50,000  ll'/i  " 

Western    "           "     6,532,000  T'/j  " 

Godavery  Delta  Works 3,418,5-35  39^ «  " 

Kistnah         "          "       2,337,135  131/4  " 

Canvery        "          "       1,468,000  36' 3  " 

Sind  Inundation  Canal 5,930,000  18' ^  " 

The  revenue  to  the  government  is  the  least  portion  of 
the  profit  derived  from  these  works.  The  profit  to  the 
people  themselves,  amounts  to  a  vastly  greater  sum,  one, 
in  fact,  the  amount  of  which  is  not  to  be  computed  in 
money;  for  the  famine,  of  frequent  occurrence  before  the 
completion  of  these  works,  destroyed  thousands  of  human 
kVes,  and  caused  thousands  of  square  miles  of  fertile 
land  to  be  abandoned  to  grow  up  to  jungle.  In  18G0,  the 
Ganges  canal  preserved  grain  crops  from  destruction, 
which  fed  a  million  of  people  ;  in  1874  the  Soave  canal 
saved  the  crops  over  a  large  territory,  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  devastated  by  drouth,  and  many  of  the 
newer  works,  water  regions  which  have  heretofore  been 
visited  with  some  of  the  most  destructive  famines  men- 
tioned in  history.  And  the  whole  of  this  work  has  been 
undertaken  and  successfully  managed  by  the  government. 

Economy  in  the  use  of  the  water,  and  in  tlic  con- 
struction of  the  works  also,  calls  for  such  extended  sur- 
veys, perhaps  over  hundreds  of  miles  of  territory,  tbut 
no  private  persons,  nor  associated  companies,  could  i)os- 
sibly  perform  them,  unless  tliey  were  endowed  with  legal- 
ized monopolies  or  exclusive  rights  ;  and  in  tlio  light  of 
past  experience  with  huge  chartered  corporations,  farm- 
ers could  not  wisely  submit  to  have  their  interests — so 


176  lEEIGATIOX. 

vital  in  this  case — placed  in  such  keeping.  The  experi- 
ence already  gathered  in  the  case  of  the  Cavour  canal  in 
Italy,  proves  that  a  chartered  company  is  a  most  unsafe 
trustee  for  the  interests  of  the  persons  most  nearly  con- 
cerned in  an  irrigating  canal.  In  that  case,  while  for- 
tunes were  made  by  speculators,  the  work  was  a  failure, 
and  the  government  was  forced  to  interfere  and  purchase 
the  canal  in  the  end. 

It  is,  however,  out  of  place  to  argue  this  question  here, 
and  it  is  left  for  the  consideration  of  those  interested, 
who  will  readily  perceive  the  necessity  for  the  course  here 
indicated. 

The  cost  of  irrigation  has  been  very  clearly  shown  by 
the  successful  enterprises  in  Colorado.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  notliing  is  paid  for  the 
water  itself,  and  only  the  expense  of  bringing  it  to  the 
fields  is  included  in  the  figures  given.  As  a  rule,  the 
more  extensive  the  works,  and  the  g: eater  area  brought 
under  irrigation,  the  less  is  the  cost  per  acre.  But  it  is 
hardly  probable  that,  in  any  case,  the  annual  cost  per 
acre,  can  be  brought  below  an  average  of  $1  to  $2  per 
acre.  In  many  cases  the  cost  maybe  more  than  this,  but 
even  then,  the  profit  to  the  owner  of  the  land  will  be 
many  times  greater  than  the  cost  incurred.  Lands  that 
have  gone  a  begging  at  $5  per  acre,  in  parts  of  Califor- 
nia, and  have  indeed  been  practically  useless  while  with- 
out water,  have  been  purchased  eagerly  at  125  to  $50  per 
acre,  as  soon  as  a  supply  of  water  has  been  brought  to 
them.  In  general,  the  extra  value  added  to  land  by  irri- 
gation, varies  from  $25  per  acre  up  to  several  hundred 
dollars.  In  some  portions  of  Europe,  land  is  by  irriga- 
tion increased  in  salable  value,  five  to  ten-fold. 

The  charge  for  water  in  France,  varies  from  $6  to  $7 
per  acre,  annually;  one  cubic  foot  per  second,  being  used 
for  70  acres,  and  $450  being  paid  per  cubic  foot  per 
second,  during  the  season.     No  water  is  permitted  to  be 


IN   ITALY.  177 

given  away,  although  the  purchaser  may  have  a  surplus. 
One  cubic  foot  per  second,  is  equal  to  72  square  inches  of 
water  flowing  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  per  hour,  or  as  fast 
as  an  active  man  can  walk  with  ease. 

In  Spain  the  Iberian  Irrigation  Company  makes  a 
charge  of  $7  per  acre,  for  12  waterings  per  year,  equiva- 
lent to  a  total  depth  of  33  inches  of  water  over  the  entire 
surface  irrigated.  The  canal  of  this  company  is  a  splen- 
did engineering  work,  it  being  28  miles  long  and  costing 
$600,000.  It  has  a  surplus  of  water,  equal  to  a  power  of 
3,000  horses,  which  is  rented  out  at  $50  per  horse  power 
per  annum. 

In  Italy  the  cost  of  water  varies  considerably.  In  Lom- 
bardy,  about  1,000,000  acres  are  irrigated,  at  an  invest- 
ment of  about  $20  per  acre,  or  a  total  of  $30,000,000, 
which  is  equivalent  to  $1,250  per  cubic  foot  per  second. 
The  increased  rental  value  of  the  irrigated  land  is  $4,500- 
000  per  annum  ;  or  15  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  the  works. 
The  average  cost  of  the  Avater  to  the  farmer  is  from 
$750  to  $850  per  cubic  foot  per  second,  equivalent  to 
$2.50  per  acre  for  maize,  $7.50  an  acre  for  meadows,  and 
$20  an  acre  for  rice.  A  very  good  idea  of  the  maximum 
cost  of  irrigation  can  be  gathered  from  these  figures. 
The  water  from  some  of  the  canals  is  purchased  by  local 
associations,  of  farmers  or  speculators,  who  distribute  it 
to  the  irrigators.  One  of  these  local  associations  purchases 
water  from  two  canals,  paying  $<S7  for  the  cubic  foot  ]k't 
second  for  714  feet  from  the  first,  and  selling  it  out  at 
$96  per  foot ;  and  $65  per  foot  for  074  feet  from  the 
second,  and  charging  $77  per  foot.  The  higher  ])rice  is 
charged  and  paid  on  account  of  the  valuabie  fertilizing 
matter  brought  down  by  the  water. 

These  figures,  it  should  be  remembered,  are  fixed  l)y 
circumstances  entirely  different  from  any  that  are  likely 
to  occur  in  this  country.  The  value  of  land  is  higher 
than  with  us  ;  the  cost  of  the  canals,  aqueducts,  bridges, 


178  IRRIGATION. 

and  distributing  apparatus,  is  much  liiglier  tlian  would 
be  necessary  here,  being  made  with  scrupulous  care  foi 
economy  in  both  water  and  land  ;  and  the  cost  of  super- 
vision is  much  higher  than  would  be  likely  to  occur  here. 
Unless  costly  dams,  expensive  bridges,  and  aqueducts, 
built  with  a  view  to  the  utmost  permanency,  should  be 
required,  there  would  probably  never  be  any  approach 
made  here,  to  the  high  cost  of  water  that  is  experienced 
in  European  countries.  Some  of  the  European  works, 
now  in  operation,  have  been  in  existence  for  more  than 
1,500  years.  Others  abandoned,  but  still  in  serviceable 
condition,  are  over  2,000  years  old. 

The  quantity  of  water  needed  for  irrigation,  as  4ias 
been  already  explained,  varies  greatly,  and  in  making 
estimates  of  the  amount  required,  for  any  stated  territory, 
the  engineer  or  irrigator  must  necessarily  study  both  soil 
and  climate.  Where  exhaustive  circumstances  belonging 
to  either  are  found,  reasonable  allowances  must  be  made. 
A  maximum  consumption,  as  indicated  by  experience  in 
Colorado,  as  well  as  by  comparative  estimates  in  foreign 
countries  with  arid  climates,  may  be  considered  to  be, 
one  square  inch  per  acre  continually  flowing  ;  and  an 
average  consumption  to  be  72  square  inches  per  100  acres 
continually  flowing  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  per  hour,  or 
half  a  cubic  foot  per  second.  This  estimate,  however, 
does  not  include  the  loss  by  evaporation,  or  soakage 
through  the  bed  of  the  canal ;  losses  which,  in  one  of  the 
Californian  canals,  amounts  to  more  than  40  per  cent  of 
the  quantity  entering  the  mouth  of  the  canal,  and  is 
therefore  seen  to  be  a  very  serious  item  of  consideration 
by  the  hydraulic  engineer.  Some  further  remark  upon 
this  important  point  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on 
Canals  further  on,  to  wliich  attention  is  directed. 

The  art  of  irrigation,  however,  is  in  its  infancy  with  us 
as  yet ;  and  although  we  enjoy  some  special  advantages, 
there  are  some  things  to  be  learned  before  the  full  benefit 


CAUTIONARY   SUGGESTIONS.  179 

of  the  practice  can  be  reached.  To  some  extent,  oui 
appliances  are  rude  and  ineffective,  and  the  watering  of 
crops  is  sometimes  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  injurious 
to  them  or  wasteful  of  water.  Farming  by  irrigation, 
beneath  an  atmosphere  in  which  evaporation  is  excessively 
active,  requires  special  skill  to  avoid  misfortune,  and  tlie 
payment  of  those  costly  fees  which  experience  demands 
when  employed  as  a  teacher.  To  recapitulate  some  of  the 
most  important  points  to  be  remembered,  might  be  useful 
here.  The  first  danger  into  which  the  inexperienced  irri- 
gator falls,  is  usually  the  use  of  an  excessive  quantity  of 
water,  of  a  too  frequent  application  of  it.  The  copious- 
ness and  frequency  of  the  watering  must  depend  upon 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent. A  porous,  sandy  soil,  with  a  similar  subsoil,  can 
hardly  be  injured  by  over-watering  so  long  as  stagnant 
water  is  not  allowed  to  remain  upon  it,  and  it  is  sufficient- 
ly well  fertilized  to  bear  the  vegetation  which  copious 
waterings  would  encourage.  Saturation  of  the  soil,  long 
continued,  would  be  fatal  to  almost  every  crop.  A  soil 
containing  80  per  cent  of  sand,  may  be  copiously  irrigated 
every  five  days  without  injury,  Avhile  another  containing 
but  20  per  cent  of  sand,  would  not  bear  moderate  irriga- 
tion more  frequently  than  every  10  or  15  days.  The 
watchful  care  of  the  cultivator  must  be  exercised  to  keep 
the  soil  moist  and  mellow  and  no  more.  Over  watering 
tends  to  bake  the  soil.  Flooding  the  surface  also  tends 
to  the  same  injurious  effect.  Water  should  be  applied 
in  the  evening,  in  preference  to  any  other  time,  but  on 
no  account  in  the  day  during  the  prevalence  of  sunsliino 
or  a  drying  wind.  A  calm  evening  is  the  very  best  time 
to  irrigate.  The  soil  then  dries  upon  the  surface  before 
morning,  and  the  sun  will  not  bake  or  crust  the  ground. 
During  an  occasional  shower  is  a  specially  favorahlc  time, 
and  this  opportunity  should  be  seized  and  utilized  without 
delay.     The  use  of  drills,  or  small  water  furrows,  is  pro- 


180  lERIGATION. 

ferable  to  any  other  metliod  of  applying  water.     All  cul- 
tivated crops  should  therefore  be  sown  or  planted  in  drills. 
Any  crops,  that  may  be  grown  in  ordinary  cultivation, 
may  be  raised   by  irrigation,  but  there  are   some  that 
flourish  better  under  it   than  under  ordinary   culture. 
These  are  generally  the  broad-leafed  crops,  leguminous 
plants,  and  the  grasses  cultivated  for  fodder.     Long  tap- 
rooted  plants,  clover,  luccrn,  carrots,  all  species  of  beets, 
and  the  cabbage  tribe,  especially  thrive  under  irrigation. 
Cereals  generally  need  but  very  little  water  after  tlieir  in- 
florescence, and  the  quality  of  the  grain  is  improved  by 
its  absence   after  fertilization   has   taken  place.     It  is 
asserted  by  the  French  irrigators  that  the  wheat  crop  is 
frequently  injured  by  any  watering  at  the  time  of  blos- 
soming, and  that  at  this  critical  season  the  water  should 
be  withdrawn,  and  again  applied,  for  only  a  very  short 
period,  as  the  grain  is  swelling.     Potatoes  are  injured  in 
quality  by  overwatering,  and  for  this  crop  a  soil  of  reten- 
tive character  should  be  specially  avoided.     The  satura- 
tion of  the  subsoil,  during  the  period  when  the  soil  is 
bare  of  crops,  as  in  the  Fall  and  Winter,  not  only  aids 
the  Summer  growth  by  furnishing  a  reservoir  of  moisture, 
but  irrigation  at  these  seasons  brings  to  the  soil  consider- 
able access  of  fertility,  especially  when  the  water  is  deriv- 
ed from  mountain  streams.     On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  subsoil  is  strongly  alkaline,  as  in  some  localities,  con- 
tinuous and  copious  Winter  irrigation  will  remove  much 
of  the  excess  of  alkaline  salts  ;   but  alternate  irrigation 
will  not  have  this  effect,  for  much  of  the  alkaline  matter 
will  be  brought  back  near  the  surface  by  capillary  at- 
traction. 

There  are  large  tracts  of  land,  the  subsoil  of  which  is 
so  thoroughly  impregnated  with  alkali,  as  to  render  the 
surface  hopelessly  barren,  except  so  far  as  they  may  bear 
a  sparse  vegetation  of  plants,  the  roots  of  which  remain 
near  the  surface,  and  the  quality  of  which  unfits  them 


IMPROVEMENT    OF   ALKALTN'E    SOILS.  181 

for  any  use  to  the  stock-raiser  or  farmer.  These  lands 
may  easily  be  reclaimed  by  irrigation.  Copious  watering, 
continuously  applied,  will  wash  out  the  soluble  alkali  from 
the  subsoil  and  render  them  arable.  But  the  watering 
must  be  long  continued,  and  at  a  season  when  evaporation 
is  the  least  active.  It  is  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
such  soils,  that  brings  to  the  surface  the  alkaline  matter, 
where  it  effloresces  and  makes  them  appear  as  if  covered 
with  newly  fallen  snow  or  hoar  frost.  All  this  injurious 
matter,  chiefly  consisting  of  soda  salts,  may  be  removed 
through  the  subsoil  by  the  continued  action  of  irrigation, 
and  washed  into  the  rivers  and  the  sea.  The  water 
charged  with  these  salts,  which  in  excess  are  destructive, 
but  in  moderate  supply  are  helpful,  may  in  fact  be  used 
over  again  on  its  passage  down  the  rivers  after  it  has 
emerged  beneath  the  surface  in  hundreds  of  springs, 
ujoon  new  fields,  which  actually  need  this  alkaline  matter 
to  make  them  fruitful. 

Another  highly  important  consideration  presents  itself. 
It  is  found  that  after  a  few  years  of  irrigation,  the  soil 
requires  the  artificial  application  of  less  water  ;  that  the 
atmosphere  becomes  more  highly  charged  with  moisture, 
and  that  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  becomes,  in 
consequence,  less  and  less  as  years  pass  ;  that  the  rainfall 
is  increased,  and  that  the  supply  of  water  becomes  rela- 
tively more  abundant,  as  the  land  needs  less  of  it,  and 
thus  the  area  that  may  be  irrigated,  gradually  increases. 
The  low  lands  are  also  moistened  by  the  surplus  from  the 
bench  lands  which  percolates  through  them  ;  the  soil  be- 
comes charged  with  vegetable  matter,  and  more  retentive 
of  water,  and  these  effects  react  upon  the  climate. 

These  effects  have  been  more  particularly  noted  in  Utah, 
where  irrigation  has  been  longest  in  use,  and  wIhto  tlio 
growth  of  trees  has  been  comparatively  extensive.  Al- 
ready the  increase  in  the  rainfall  has  become  noticeable, 
and  the  level  of  Great  Salt  Lake  has  risen  several  feet. 


182  IRRIGATIOIT. 

within  the  last  few  years.  This,  however,  can  occur  only 
to  a  limited  extent,  as  the  physical  features  of  the  coun- 
try, upon  which  the  peculiarities  of  the  climate  depend, 
must  remain  permanently  as  they  are,  and  their  effects 
must  of  course  continue  with  them.  But  the  intensity 
of  the  drouth,  and  of  the  hot,  dry  winds,  will  probably 
become  ameliorated  more  and  more,  as  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil  extends. 

The  management  of  the  various  field  crops  under  irri- 
gation, calls  for  some  judgment,  and  a  few  general  re- 
marks may  be  useful. 

Wheat. — This  will  always  be  the  main  crop  wherever 
irrigation  is  generally  used.  A  thorough  soaking  of  the 
soil,  some  days  before  it  is  plowed,  is  advisable.  It  then 
turns  up  mellow  and  in  fine  condition  for  the  seed. 
Where  wheat  is  made  to  follow  wheat,  the  seed  may  be 
sown  upon  the  stubble,  and  a  light  furrow  turned  over  it. 
Otherwise  it  would  be  preferable  to  drill  in  the  seed,  and 
immediately  roll  the  land  with  a  corrugated  roller,  fig.  9(3, 
which  leaves  the  surface  covered  with  small  channels,  ad- 
mirably fitted  for  watering  the  crop.  (This  roller,  as 
well  as  another  kind  for  the  same  use,  is  described  more 
fully  in  the  next  chapter.)  If  no  rain  should  occur,  or  in 
localities  where  rain  is  not  to  be  looked  for,  a  moderate 
watering  may  then  be  given  before  the  soil  has  become 
dried.  This  will  be  sufficient  to  .start  the  growth,  after 
which  moderate  waterings,  at  intervals  of  seven  to  four- 
teen days,  will  be  required,  up  to  the  time  when  the 
grain  is  heading.  Then  occurs  the  critical  period,  for 
overwatering  may  rust  the  crop  ;  and  it  is  precisely  here 
that  the  irrigator  enjoys  the  advantage  over  the  farmer 
who  depends  on  rainfall  exclusively,  and  frequently  sees 
his  hopes  and  his  crop  blnsted  together  by  unfavorable 
weather  at  the  period  of  flowerins;.  It  may  be  that  water 
will  be  required  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  beginning  to  form, 
but  if  the  soil  is  at  all  moist,  water  may  not  be  needed. 


ClTLTirRE   OP   WHEAT.  183 

This  point  so  completely  depends  upon  circumstances, 
that  no  rule  can  be  given  ;  the  novice  who  has  never  be- 
fore raised  a  croji  of  wheat,  will  lose  less  by  erring  upon 
the  side  of  caution,  and  the  farmer,  used  to  grow  wheat 
under  the  ordinary  methods,  will  readily  avoid  what  he 
knows  to  be  injurious.  It  will  not  hurt  a  crop  of  wheat 
if  the  ground  should  get  dry  occasionally,  and  excess  of 
water  encourages  growth  of  straw  at  the  expense  of  grain. 

Other  Grains  than  wheat  require  very  similar  manage- 
ment. Oats  Avill  thrive  with  more  copious  watering,  but 
barley  needs  care  about  the  time  of  filling  and  ripening 
of  the  grain.  The  duration  of  a  watering,  for  all  the 
small  grains,  should  not  exceed  24  hours. 

Corn  and  Broom  Corn. — Corn  luxuriates  beneath  heat 
and  moisture  ;  and  for  its  rapid  and  healthful  growth  the 
soil  should  be  kept  moist.  The  plan  adopted  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Po,  in  Italy,  where  maize  is  a  very  common 
and  productive  crop,  is  to  plant  in  rows,  and  apply  the 
water  in  the  spaces  between  them.  The  corn  may  be 
planted  in  hills,  and  watered  in  a  similar  manner.  As 
soon  as  the  grain  becomes  glazed,  the  water  may  be  with- 
drawn, and  the  ground  dried  for  harvesting.  Broom  corn 
is  managed  similarly  to  maize,  being  kept  regularly  water- 
ed ;  at  the  time  of  the  heading  out  of  the  panicle,  water 
is  given  plentifully  to  force  a  good  growth  of  brush,  and 
produce  a  smooth,  long,  straight  fiber.  The  broom  corn 
grown  in  Tulare  Co.,  Cal.,  under  irrigation,  is  fouad  to 
be  of  the  very  best  quality  and  color.  As  these  crops  re- 
quire frequent  cultivation,  the  irrigation  should  be  given 
at  a  sufficient  time  before  this  must  be  done,  to  permit 
the  ground  to  become  dry  enough  for  proper  working,  l)ut 
not  too  dry.  The  cultivation  should  follow  the  watering, 
and  not  the  watering  the  cultivation  ;  then  the  soil  is 
kept  mellow  and  moist  during  a  longer  interval.  Fodder 
corn  rofjuires  copious  watering.  This  crop  is  one  that 
may  be  grown  to  advantage  upon  fields  that  are  in  course 


184  IREIGATION. 

of  preparation  for  water  meadows,  or  in  rotation,  when  a 
meadow  needs  plowing  and  reseeding. 

Flax. — As  this  plant,  when  grown  for  fiber,  depends 
greatly  for  its  value  upon  the  length  and  fineness  of  the 
staple,  and  as  it  flourishes  best  upon  cool,  moist  soils,  it 
is  one  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  cultivation  by  irrigation. 
It  may  be  sown  in  drills,  nine  inches  apart,  or  if  sown 
broadcast,  the  surface  should  be  rolled  with  the  corrugat- 
ed roller,  forming  furrows,  either  directly  down,  or  diag- 
onally across,  the  slope  of  the  field. 

Hemp. — This  crop  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  irrigation, 
its  yield  and  quality  being  both  improved  under  this 
method  of  cultivation.  The  mode  of  culture  is  as  fol- 
lows. The  land  is  laid  off,  by  the  plow,  into  beds  or  flat 
ridges,  three  feet  wide,  with  intervals  between  them  of 
one  foot  in  width.  The  seed  is  sown  upon  these  beds 
while  the  soil  is  moist  from  a  previous  irrigation.  The 
spaces  between  the  beds  are  left  to  provide  room  for  hoe- 
ing and  weeding  the  beds,  and  for  pulling  the  male  stalks 
as  soon  as  the  pollen  has  been  shed,  as  well  as  for  irriga- 
tion. Hemp  is  a  plant  in  which  the  pollen  and  the  seed 
are  produced  by  different  individuals,  called  respectively 
male,  or  sfcaminate,  and  female,  or  pistillate  plants.  As 
the  male  jilants  naturally  soon  die,  long  before  the  others 
are  perfected,  it  is  better  to  get  them  out  of  the  way  as 
soon  as  they  have  fulfilled  their  office  of  fertilizing  the 
flowers  of  the  other  sex.  After  the  eoed  has  sprouted, 
water  is  given,  but  only  in  the  spaces  between  the  beds  ; 
these  are  copiously  flowed,  so  that  the  moisture  may  pen- 
etrate through  every  portion  of  the  beds.  The  croj)  is 
irrigated  every  10  days,  at  least,  or  still  more  frequently 
Avhen  necessary.  The  soil  should  always  be  kept  moist, 
but  at  the  same  time  it  should  not  be  saturated.  Fre- 
quent, moderate  irrigations,  are  employed  to  within  four- 
teen days  of  the  flowering,  when  the  waterings  cease.  If 
the  irrigation  is  continued  during  the  flowering,  the  fer« 


TOBACCO   AND   COTTON.  185 

tilization  of  the  female  flowers  is  weakened,  and  the 
product  of  seed  decreased.  The  suspension  of  the  water- 
ing leaves  the  spaces  between  the  beds  dry,  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  persons  who  pull  out  the  male  piantj;,  which 
is  done  to  give  more  room  for  the  ripening  of  the  seed 
upon  those  that  are  left. 

Tobacco. — This  crop  thrives  well  under  irrigation.  The 
method  in  use  where  tobacco  is  largely  grown,  is  to  plow 
the  ground  to  a  depth  of  seven  inches,  the  manure  hav- 
ing been  previously  incorporated  with  the  soil  by  plowing. 
The  ground  is  harrowed  smoothly  and  leveled.  Eidges 
are  then  thrown  up,  18  inches  apart  from  each  other,  and 
the  surface  between  them  is  leveled.  The  beds  are  then 
watered  by  flooding  the  intervals,  and  the  ground  well 
soaked.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough,  the  plants  are 
brought  from  tlie  seed  bed,  and  set  out  on  the  ridge,  18 
inches  apart ;  or  more,  if  a  large  leafed  variety  is  grown. 
The  day  following  the  planting,  water  is  given,  and  re- 
peated in  two  or  three  days.  Then  an  interval  of  twenty 
days  occurs,  in  which  no  water  is  given,  but  the  soil  is 
hoed  or  cultivated.  Then  water  is  given  every  14  days, 
or  if  the  weather  is  very  dry  and  warm,  and  the  soil  need 
it,  water  is  turned  on  every  8  days.  Hoeing  is  done 
when  needed,  after  the  watering.  This  is  continued  un- 
til the  crop  is  ready  for  cutting.  In  every  other  respect 
the  cultivation  is  the  same  as  Avhen  irrigation  is  not  used. 
Under  irrigation  a  leaf  of  remarkably  fine  texture,  and  of 
a  mild  flavor  and  color  may  be  grown,  Where  the  climate 
admits  of  it,  two  crops  are  grown  in  one  year  by  means 
of  irrigation.     This  is  regularly  done  in  Algeria. 

CJotton  has  been  grown  in  Southern  California,  under 
irrigation,  with  success.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
peculiar  needs  of  this  crop,  as  regards  its  growth  of  stalk 
and  leaf,  the  formation  of  bolls,  and  the  season  of  ripen- 
ing, are  better  sup])lied  by  irrigalion  than  in  any  other 
way.     But  few  crops  need  so  little  water  as  cotton,  and 


186  IRRIGATIOIT. 

by  caution  in  keeping  the  soil  merely  moist,  and  no  more, 
the  plant  may  be  prevented  from  becoming  stunted  on 
the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  the  necessity  for  topping 
it,  to  encourage  boiling,  may  be  obviated.  The  method 
of  planting  recommended  is,  to  plow  high  ridges,  or  beds, 
4'  I2  feet  wide,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  water  furrow^  is 
made  with  a  small  plow.  When  the  soil  has  been  well 
soaked  from  these  furrows,  the  earth  is  thrown  into  them 
from  each  side,  a  drill  is  opened  above  the  moistened  soil, 
and  the  seed  sowu  in  it,  and  covered  with  the  hoe,  not 
more  than  one  inch  deep.  If  the  soil  has  been  well 
moistened,  the  seed  germinates  at  once,  and  only  one  more 
irrigation  is  needed  to  mature  the  crop,  unless  on  very 
light  and  open  soil.  The  soil  is  plowed  in  February,  and 
irrigated  and  planted  in  March.  The  usual  methods  of 
cultivation  and  hoeing  are  practiced. 

Lucern  or  Alfalfa. — Leguminous  plants  will  suffer  from 
as  copious  irrigation  as  may  be  needed  for  grass  or  grain 
crops.  Lucern  or  Alfalfa  being  one  of  the  leguminosae 
must  be  irrigated  with  caution,  lest  the  permanence  of  the 
crop  be  endangered.  Its  long  tap  roots  penetrate  deeply, 
and  if  much  water  is  given,  and  the  subsoil  is  at  all  re- 
tentive, they  will  die  and  rot,  and  the  crop  is  but  short- 
lived. The  character  of  the  soil  should  be  ascertained 
before  ground  that  is  to  be  irrigated  is  sown  with  lucern. 
When  this  is  known,  the  periods  and  amount  of  the  irri- 
gation may  be  chosen  with  accuracy.  In  Central  France, 
this  crop  is  extensively  grown,  and  yields  amazingly  under 
the  warm  sun  and  frequent  waterings  ;  but  in  England, 
lucern  does  not  succeed.  It  is  peculiarly  a  crop  of  warm, 
dry  climates,  and  in  California  it  has  been  grown  with 
the  most  satisfactory  results,  both  upon  reclaimed  "  tule" 
lands,  and  valley  lands.  It  there  requires  watering  from 
once  a  week  to  once  a  month,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  soil.  As  long  as  moisture  is  within  reach  of  the 
roots,  the  surface  may  be  left  dry,  but  stagnant  water  in 


FODDER   CROPS.  187 

the  subsoil  -would  be  fatal  to  the  crop,  and  must  be  care- 
fully avoided.  Twelve  to  fifteen  tons  of  fodder  have  been 
growu  per  acre,  with  four  or  five  cuttings  during  the 
growing  season,  and  a  watering  after  each  cutting. 

Clover  is  a  plant  that  delights  in  a  cool  climate,  and 
where  lucern  can  be  produced  successfully,  it  would  not 
be  adnsable  to  grow  clover  under  irrigation  in  competition 
with  it.  Under  partial  irrigation,  and  where  lucern  is 
not  a  successful  crop,  it  may  be  vratered  moderately  at 
intervals  of  10  to  14  days,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil. 

Fodder  Crops. — Mixed  crops  of  oats  and  peas  ;  barley 
and  tares,  millet,  or  Hungarian  grass,  may  be  grown  in 
succession  during  the  whole  year,  where  frosts  do  not 
occur,  or  during  the  summer  elsewhere.  By  sowing  in 
drills  or  forming  water  channels  with  the  roller,  as  before 
described,  water  may  be  given  with  facility  during  the 
earlier  stages  6f  these  crops.  When  the  ground  is  hid- 
den by  the  herbage,  no  further  Avatering  is  given. 

Sorghum. — As  a  fodder  crop  this  plant  cannot  compete 
with  corn  ;  but  when  grown  for  the  manufacture  of  syrup, 
it  yields  largely  when  irrigated  up  to  a  certain  point. 
Its  growth  is  slow  and  weak  at  first,  and  at  this  stage  it 
will  need  copious  irrigation,  so  long  as  the  soil  is  not 
saturated.  Afterwards,  when  it  has  commenced  its  active 
growth,  water  should  be  given  sparingly,  otherwise  tlie 
sap  will  be  impaired  in  quality,  Xo  water  is  given  to  this 
crop  for  a  month  before  cutting,  unless  from\9omo  uuex. 
pected  cause  it  is  seen  to  suffer  for  want  of  it,  and  then 
only  the  most  moderate  watering  is  to  be  given. 

Sugar  Beets.— Whan  grown  for  sugar,  this  plant  needs 
only  moderate  irrigation,  and  at  lengthened  intervals. 
The  root  fil)ers  are  very  sensitive  to  excess  of  moisture, 
and  a  watering  during  one  night  only,  will  l)eall  that  the 
plant  will  safely  bear.  Excessive  growth  is  not  conip;it- 
ible  with  a  yield  of  rich  saccharine  juice,  and  a  small  solid 


188  rREIGATIOX. 

root  is  the  most  profitable.  This  crop,  if  it  is  to  "be  irri- 
gated, is  planted  in  siigiitly  raised  beds,  between  wiiich 
tne  water  is  fiowed,  so  tliat  it  does  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  btilbs.  AVhen  grown  for  stock,  beets  and  mau- 
gels  may  be  more  copiusly  watered,  nntil  fully  grown, 
when  water  may  be  withheld  while  ripening  is  complet- 
insr. 

Teasels. — Although  this  is  an  uncommon  crop,  yet  as  it 
is  gro^\Ti  under  irrigation,  as  a  twin  crop  with  winter 
wheat,  it  is  mentioned  here.  The  manner  of  its  cultiva- 
tion  is,  to  sow  it  in  alternate  rows,  or  drills,  with  the 
wheat,  or  broadcast  mixed  with  the  seed.  As  soon  a^  the 
wheat  is  hiirvested,  the  ground  is  watered,  and  the  irri- 
gation is  repeated  two  or  three  times,  the  same  season, 
and  monthly  the  next  season,  up  to  a  short  time  before 
the  crop  is  ready  for  harvesting. 

In  concluding  this  Chapter,  it  may  be  as  well,  at  the 
risk  of  repetition,  to  observe,  that  in  irrigation,  the  ob- 
ject is  to  supply  simply  the  natural  wants  of  the  plants 
grown  upon  the  land,  and  not  to  stimulate  an  undue  or 
excessive  growth,  merely  because  we  may  suppose  that 
we  have  the  means  to  do  this  at  our  control.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  supply  nutriment  to  the  plants,  and  not  to 
saturate  the  soil.  The  careful  irrigator  will  study  the 
peculiarities  of  the  plants  he  cultivates,  and  the  character 
of  tho  soil  he  works  with,  as  well  as  something  of  the 
natural  law?  of  plant  frrowih  :  and  apply  his  knowledsre 
to  his  business,  carefully,  systematically,  and  judiciouslv; 
not  proceedinsr  in  a  hap-hazard  or  a  ''mle-of -thumb" 
matiner  to  delude  his  soil  with  water,  simply  because  he 
has  paid  for  a  certain  quantity  of  it. 


tow   TO    PSILPAKE  THE   faUEFACE.  189 

CHAPTER     X  Y  I  I . 
PREPARING    THE    SUKFACE    FOR    IRRIGATION. 

The  method  of  farming  by  irrigation  is  Tery  simple  and 
easy  to  learn.  The  principals  upon  which  it  is  managed 
are  summed  up  in  the  general  laws  that  water  always  runs 
down  hill,  and  that  a  certaia  quantity  of  it  is  needed  for 
the  growth  of  a  plant.  In  preparing  the  ground  for  irri- 
garion,  then,  it  is  only  necessary  to  remember  these  facts 
and  conform  the  practice  to  them.  The  surface  of  a  cul- 
tivated field  should  therefore  be  of  slight  slope,  generally 
in  one  direction,  and  of  an  even,  smooth  character,  free 
from  irregularities  or  knolls.  If,  however,  the  chaiacter 
of  the  surface  is  such  that  it  is  variously  inclined  with 
irregular  depressions,  having  a  general  course  downward 
from  the  level  of  the  water  supply,  the  courses  of  the 
distributing  channels  may  be  so  laid  out  as  to  practicably 
reduce  the  whole  field  to  a  regular  slope  and  make  it  very 
easily  irrigated.  In  the  first  case,  the  water  taken  from 
the  canals  of  supply  will  be  brought  into  the  main  dis- 
tributing channels,  the  course  of  which  will  be  down  the 
slope  :  directlv,  if  the  declivity  is  not  too  great,  and 
diagonally  if  not  more  than  three  feet  in  a  hundred. 
From  these  channels  the  water  aoII  be  taken  laterally  in- 
to other  channels,  and  from  them  spread  over  the  ground. 
This  plan  being  suitable  only  where  the  soil  presents  a 
plane  surface,  inclined  from  the  canal  downward,  is  vh- 
viously  fitted  for  only  a  very  few  cases,  for  those  m  which 
the  land  is  altogether  free  from  swells  and  variations  from 
a  level,  are  very  rare  naturally  and  not  very  common  arti- 
ficially. 

Where,  however,  it  is  possible  so  to  prepare  the  land 
that  this  even  plane  surface  can  be  secured,  it  will 
manifestly  be  the  best  and  cheapest  in  the  end.  so  to  pre- 
pare it.     The  great  majority  of  the  river  bottoms  in  those 


190  lERIGATION. 

parts  of  the  country  where  cultivation  by  irrigation  is 
now  practiced,  and  where  it  is  destined  to  be  largely  ex- 
tended, admit  of  very  easy  preparation  by  plowing,  har- 
rowing, scraping,  and  rolling.  To  plow  these  lands,  a 
different  system  from  that  generally  practiced  should  be 
adopted.  The  swivel  plow  is  the  best  instrument  for  this 
purpose.  With  this  plow,  the  furrows  may  be  laid  the 
same  way  over  a  whole  field,  and  the  *' lands,"  more  or 
less  narrow,  necessarily  formed  with  the  common  plow 
are  avoided.  In  plowing  in  "  lands"  the  alternate  back 
furrows  and  open  furrows  leave  a  succession  of  ridges  and 
hollows,  which  are  inconvenient  in  irrigated  fields,  except 
in  those  cases  in  which  the  system  of  ''bedding"  of  the 
soil  is  adopted.  In  this  case  the  water  is  carried  along 
the  summits  of  the  lands,  and  flows  in  both  directions  to 
the  open  furrows  on  each  side.  This  may  be  convenient- 
ly done  when  the  general  level  is  once  secured. 

A  good  surface  will  be  best  secured  by  using  the  swivel 
plow,  beginning  by  running  a  back  furrow  across  the 
center  of  the  field,  carefully  laid  out  exactly  parallel  to 
two  of  its  sides— if  the  field  is  square— and  equally  dis- 
tant from  each.  The  back  furrow  should  be  made  by 
first  throwing  two  furrows  outward  in  opposite  directions, 
leaving  an  open  furrow  on  the  line  laid  out.  The  plow  is 
then  driven  through  the  center  of  the  ridges  thus  cast 
out,  splitting  them  and  throwing  the  earth  back  into  the 
open  furrow.  This  method  leaves  no  unploAved  ground, 
and  very  much  less  ridge  in  the  back  furrow  than  any 
other  mannor  of  beginning  the  "land."  The  plowing 
then  proceeds  in  the  usual  manner,  finishing  one  side  of 
the  field,  and  then  the  other.  If  care  is  taken  to  plow 
straight  and  even  furro  ■  s,  the  last  furrow  will  leave  a 
ditch  along  the  boundary  of  the  field,  and  close  to  it. 
There  should  be  no  baulks  made  in  plowing  an  irrigated 
field,  a>5  the  hard  spots  there  left  will  not  absorb  water 
e(jually  with  the  other  portions,  and  the  crop  will  suffer 


EXAMPLE    OF    IKKIGATED    FIELD.  191 

on  those  spots.  It  might  be  mentioned  here  that  a  very- 
smooth,  liiie  surface,  is  objectionable,  as  being  very  liable 
to  bake  under  the  hot  sun  after  watering.  A  soil  that  is 
somewhat  cloddy  or  lumpy,  is  not  so  apt  to  bake,  and  is 
preferable  to  a  very  fine  one.  The  ground  is  then  leveled 
with  a  scraper,  the  hollows  filled  with  earth  from  the 
ridges  and  swells,  and  as  accurate  a  level  as  possible  is 
secured. 

When  the  level  surface  has  been  procured,  or  where  it 
is  already  sufficiently  level  naturally,  the  course  of  the 
furrows  is  to  be  laid  out  with  due  regard  to  the  position 
of  the  chief  supply  canal,  and  the  foot  drain  by  which 
any  surplus  of  water  is  to  be  carried  off.  It  is  under- 
stood that  the  chief  supply  canal  is  made  with  as  little 
fall  as  possible  ;  in  practice,  this  should  not  exceed  3  feet 
per  mile,  and  should  not  be  less  than  one  foot  per  mile. 
From  this  canal  the  primary,  or  main  distributing  ditches 
are  made  to  diverge,  and  these  should  have  a  slope  from 
3  to  8  feet  per  mile  ;  the  medium  slope  of  4  to  5  feet  per 
mile  being  preferable.  From  these  primary  ditches, 
secondary  ditches  are  laid  out,  having  the  same  slope, 
about  1,000  to  1,500  feet  apart,  when  a  large  tract  is  to 
be  brought  under  irrigation  ;  a  distance  of  one  fourth  of 
a  mile,  or  1,320  feet,  is  a  very  convenient  distance,  as  it  is 
equal  to  the  size  of  a  40  acre  lot,  and  divides  an  80  or  ICO 
acre  tract  into  equal  portions.  A  catch-water  ditch  should 
be  laid  out  parallel  to  the  primary  ditch,  at  about  2,000 
to  3,000  feet  distant  from  it ;  a  half  mile,  or  2,(140  feet, 
is  a  very  suitable  distance,  as  there  would  then  be  IGO 
acres,  or  two  80  acre  farms  in  the  enclosed  quadrangle. 

As  an  illustration  might  be  represented  a  plot  of  an  ir- 
rigation system,  belonging  to  the  San  Joafjuin  and  Kings 
River  Canal  in  California,  as  descril)ed  in  the  report  to 
Congress  of  the  Commission  for  the  examination  of  the 
valleys  of  California.  This  is  shown  in  the  diagram,  fig. 
81.     The  main  supply  canal  has  a  fall  of  a  foot  iu  the 


192 


IKEIGATION. 


mile,  the  ground  under  irrigation  sloping  8  feet  to  the 
mile.  The  dotted  contour  lines  in  the  plot  represent  each 
foot  of  slope  upon  the  ground.  The  water  is  deliyered 
from  the  main  canal  into  the  primary  distributing  ditch, 
at  A,  D,  ilowing  in  tlie  direction  of  the  arrow.  This 
ditch  has  a  slope  of  8  feet  to  the  mile.  From  these 
ditches  it  flows  into  the  secondary  ditches,  A  B,  D  F^ 

JL 


Y[o-_  81. — PLOT    OP   IRRIGATED   FIELD. 

(which  have  a  slope  of  5  feet  to  the  mile),  through 
gates  at  A,  and  D,  into  the  catch-water  ditches,  B,  F, 
from  which  it  flows  into  other  series  of  secondary  ditches 
beyond.  Gates  are  established  in  the  secondary  ditches, 
midway  of  their  length,  as  at  C,  and  F. 

The  subdivision  of  the  plot  is  as  follows :  Furrows 
made  with  the  plow  or  with  a  ditching  machine,  which 
finishes  a  perfect  water  furrow  at  one  operation,  are  ruo. 


PLAN    OF    AX    IRRIGATED    FIELD.  193 

at  intervals  of  120  feet  apart,  parallel  to  the  primary 
ditch,  and  down  the  slope  of  8  feet  to  the  mile.  These 
are  shown  by  the  single  dark  lines.  Other  furrows  are 
made  parallel  to  the  secondary  ditch,  and  15G  feet  apart. 
These  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  are  called  check  furrows. 
The  secondary  ditches  are  made  large  enough  to  supply 
11  of  the^ie  first  furrows,  each  of  which  communicates 
with  the  secondary  ditch,  by  means  of  a  box,  such  as  is 
shown  at  fig.  61,  (page  128),  placed  in  the  bank  as  seen 
in  the  engraving,  and  opened  and  shut  by  a  slide  at  the 
head  of  each.  When  the  gate  at  C  is  closed,  the  water 
is  turned  into  11  of  these  boxes,  and  from  them  into  the 
connected  furrows.  The  first  check  furrow  stops  the 
flow,  and  dams  the  water  back  over  the  space  of  1G5  feet 
above  it.  As  the  slope  of  the  ground  is  8  feet  to  the 
mile,  the  slope  of  the  interval  now  covered  with  water  is 
nearly  3  inches,  and  the  water  must  consequently  be  3 
inches  deep  at  the  check  furrow  before  the  upper  portion 
of  the  interval  is  watered.  (Here  a  fault  in  the  lay-out 
is  seen  at  first  sight,  because  from  the  rnpid  absorption 
of  the  water  by  the  soil,  either  the  lower  portion  must  be 
watered  to  excess,  or  the  upper  portion  be  left  without  a 
sufficient  supply.  It  is  evident  that  this  fault  would  be 
obviated  by  making  the  check  furrows  nearer  together, 
say  50  or  GO  feet,  when  the  ground  would  be  more  quick- 
ly covered,  and  more  evenly  watered.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  the  water  would  soak  through  the  check  furrow 
on  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  interval  below  it  ;  but  this 
would  be  an  irregular  and  entirely  a  too  hazardous  pro- 
ceeding to  be  adopted  by  a  careful  irrigator,  and  one  that 
would  be  excessively  wasteful,  both  of  water  and  crop.) 
When  the  interval  has  been  watered  sufficiently,  the 
check  furrow  is  opened  Avitli  tlie  hoe  at  each  main  fur- 
row, and  the  second  strip  is  watered.  The  ])roecs8  is  re- 
peated until  this  half  of  the  plot  has  been  watered.  Tlie 
boxes  are  then  closed  ;  the  gate  at  C  is  opened,  and  the 
9 


194 


IRRIGATION. 


other  part  of  the  plot  is  irrigated  in  the  same  manner. 
The  size  required  for  the  secondary  ditch,  or  rather  that 
of  the  gate  at  A,  by  which  the  ditch  is  supplied,  must  be 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  land  irrigated  by  it.  If 
the  plot  is  IGO  acres,  the  gate  should  have  an  area  of  at 
least  144  square  inches,  if  the  flow  is  continual,  and  a 
proportionately  larger  area  if  the  flow  is  intermittent. 
The  size  of  the  boxes  should  be  in  proportion,  or  14'j  ^ 
square  inches  for  each  inside  measurement.  A  box  7' |^ 
inches  wide  by  5  inches  deep  inside  measure,  and  having 


(X 


"Ir 

Fig.  83. — PLAN  OF  PUKROWS  FOB  AN  IKREGULAR  SURFACE. 

a  gate  or  slide  to  open  2  inches,  would  give  14'|„  square 
inches  of  water  under  a  head  of  3  inches,  which  is  a  usual 
arrangement  for  supply. 

This  plan  is  an  excellent  one,  and  pointed  out  as  an 
illustration  of  ordinary  irrigation,  could  hardly  be  excelled. 
"With  modifications,  it  ofEers  a  method  of  preparing  the 
surface  of  gently  sloping  ground  that  is  applicable  to  a 
wide  diversity  of  instances. 
^  The-plot  given  in  the  illustration  is  drawn  to  scale  of 


JHP?^j^.I>^   SURFACES.  195 

960  feet  to  an  inch,  and  represents  a  plot  of  80  acres, 
being  •■i,G40  feet,  (half  a  mile),  in  length,  having  22  fur- 
rows, 120  feet  apart,  in  that  direction  ;  and  1,320  feet, 
(quarter  of  a  mile),  in  width,  and  having  8  check  fur- 
rows, 165  feet  apart,  in  this  direction. 

For  those  cases  in  which  an  irregular  surface  cannot  be 
avoided  the  arrangement  of  the  water  furrows  is  different. 
For  a  field  which  slopes  on  either  side  from  a  central 
ridge  the  arrangement  is  made  as  follows  :    (See  fig.  82.) 

The  water  is  brought  from  the  main  primary  ditch, 
on  to  the  highest  portion  of  the  ridge.  From  this  it  i? 
carried  by  a  principal  furrow  along  the  ridge,  and  then 
by  other  furrows,  a,  a,  on  each  side  down  the  slope,  and 
from  those  into  distributing  furrows,  c,  c,  nearly  parallel 
with  the  main  furrow,  and  in  the  manner  before  describ- 
ed for  the  bedding  system  applied  to  gardens.  Thus  the 
water  flows  down  the  slope  on  each  side  in  a  series  of 
channels  provided  for  it,  according  to  the  circumstances 
or  necessities  of  each  case. 

AVhere  the  surface  is  irregular  in  every  direction,  it  is 
necessary  to  discover  by  careful  leveling  the  course  to  be 
taken  by  each  main  distributing  canal,  which  should  be 
made  tiie  boundary  line  between  the  fields  on  either  hand, 
and  will  therefore  be  a  permiinent  construction.  The 
course  of  the  canal  will  be  such  as  to  give  it  the  least 
possible  slo})e,  so  that  none  of  the  head  of  water  may  be 
lost  in  distributing  it  from  the  end  of  the  canal.  It  is 
obvious  that  this  course  should  be  laid  out  with  great 
care  and  exactness,  lest  by  losing  some  of  the  head,  some 
portion  of  the  land  should  be  left  without  water.  This 
work  should  be  done  either  by  a  comi-etent  surveyor,  or 
by  the  assistance  of  instruments  in  the  hands  of  the 
farmer  competent  to  use  them.  There  is  no  particular 
skill  required  to  do  this  ;  it  is  rather  a  work  that  calls  for 
extreme  care  and  patient  verification.  The  instrument 
used  maybe  a  surveyor's  field  or  portable  level,  which  will 


196  IREIGATION. 

answer  every  purpose  for  light  and  not  very  accurate  work. 
A  very  portable  and  convenient  level,  small  enough  to  be 
carried  in  the  coat  pocket,  has  been  found  by  the  author 
of  very  great  use  in  making  preliminary  surveys.  It  is 
known  as  Locke's  hand-level,  and  is  shown  in  fig.  83. 
Very  accurate  levels  may  be  taken  by  using  this  instru- 
ment in  the  following  manner.  A  rod  is  provided,  hav- 
ing a  blunt  foot,  that  will  rest  upon  the  ground,  and  not 
sink  in  soft  soil,  and  of  such  a  graduated  length  that  it 
will  reach  comfortably  to  a  hight  equal  to  that  of  the 
eye  of  the  person  using  it.  The  top  of  this  resting  rod 
is  slightly  notched,  so  that  the  level  will  rest  easily  upon 
it.  By  having  the  sighting  rod  marked  at  exactly  the 
same  length  from  the  foot  as  that  of  the  resting  rod,  and 
gauged  up  and  down  from  this  mark,  (which  should  be  an 


-LOCKE'S    nA>D-LEV£L. 

0),  the  variations  from  the  level  may  be  taken  with  the 
greatest  readiness,  and  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  pre- 
liminary work,  or  for  a  survey,  where  complete  exactitude 
is  not  required.  Any  slight  errors  that  may  be  made  will 
balance  each  other,  and  in  the  aggregate  there  will  be  very 
little  variation  ft-ini  o,  true  level  in  a  line  of  some  miles 
in  length.  In  the  illustration  the  side  of  the  level  is 
represented  as  broken  away,  to  show  the  mirror  in  the 
interior  which  reflects  the  bubble  and  the  cross-bar  in  the 
center.     The  bubble  is  seen  at  the  top  of  the  level. 

The  Architect's  level,  fig.  84,  made  by  W.  &L.  E.  Gur- 
ley,  of  Troy,  N.  Y. ,  is  a  more  costly  and  complcto  level, 
but  a  very  simple,  compact,  and  serviceable  one.  It  has 
a  telescope  11  inches  long,  with  the  usual  cross  wires, 
with  adjustment  of  eye  and  object  tubes.  It  may  be 
mounted  on  a  Jacob-staff,  or  a  tripod ;  but  for  sighting 


IKSTEUMENTS   FOR  LEVELING. 


19'3P 


along  such  work  as  irrigating  canals  and  embankments  it 
may  be  placed  upon  a  three  cornered  plate  of  iron,  or  a 
trivet,  standing  upon  three  pins,  by  which  it  may  be  firm- 


Fig.  84. — gurlet's  level. 

ly  set  upon  a  piece  of  wood,  earth,  or  a  stone.  A  tripod 
and  the  trivet  is  furnished  with  the  level  by  the  makers, 
for  the  very  reasonable  price  of  $35.  A  leveling  rod  with 
target  is  15  extra. 

An  instrument  much  used  by  French  irrigators  is  thus 
made  :  Two  pieces  of 
wood,  I'l,  inch  wide 
by  1  inch  thick  and  10 
feet  long,  are  pinned 
together  at  one  end, 
forming  an  angle,  the 
base  of  wliich  spreads 
exactly  lO'l,,  feet.  This 
gives  a  bight  of  the  a]»cx  or  joint  from  tiic  ground 
of  about  5'1,  feet.  The  arms  are  fixed  in  their  ])ropcr 
position  by  a  cross-piece  at  about  '.)'  |,  feet  from  tbo  base, 
and  fixed  exactly  parallel  to  it.     The  end  of  each  arm  ia 


Fig.  85. — HOME-MADE   LEVEL. 


198 


IREIGATION". 


pointed  and  jDrotected  by  a  metal  ring  or  ferule,  and  a 
pointed  iron  piu  is  inserted.  The  implement  is  something 
like  a  large  pair  of  compasses  with  a  spread  of  16'  \^  feet 
between  the  points.  See  fig.  85.  This  distance  is  not 
arbitrary,  but  may  be  varied  to  10,  12,  or  even  less  feet, 
but  more  would  be  inconvenient.  But  IG'I^  feet  being 
exactly  one  rod,  the  level  may  at  other  times  answer  for 
a  measurer  of  distances  conveniently,  if  made  of  this 
size.  A  spirit  level  is  placed  on  the  cross-bar.  see  fig.  86, 
care  being  taken  to  place  it  exactly  parallel   to  the  line 


— ARRANGEMENT   OF  THE    SPIUIT    LEVEL. 


between  the  bottom  pins,  and  to  verify  the  parallelism  by 
reversing  the  position  of  the  implement  as  it  stands  upon 
the  ground  upon  a  spot  shown  to  be  level  by  its  first 
position.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  getting  the  level 
exactly  placed  to  one  who  understands  the  use  of  the 
spirit  level,  but  unless  it  is  placed  exactly  the  implement 
will  be  useless.  To  use  the  implement,  a  wooden  plug  is 
driven  in  the  ground,  level  with  the  surface, 
at  a  point  where  the  canal  is  to  start  from.  One 
of  the  legs  of  the  level  is  placed  upon  the  plug 
and  the  other  forward  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  water  is  to  flow,  and  from  one  side  to  an- 
other, until  a  point  is  found  which  is  level  with 
the  starting  point.  A  plug  is  then  driven  into 
the  ground  at  the  second  point.  If  the  fall  has 
Fig.  87.  been  fixed  at  one  foot  in  1,000  feet,  which  is  the 
most  advisable  for  distributing  furrows  or  canals,  the  sec- 
ond plug  should  be  placed  a  fifth  of  an  inch  below  the  level 
of  the  first.  This  may  easily  be  done  with  accuracy  by 
cutting  off  with  a  saw,  one-half  of  the  top  of  the  plug 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  below  the  other  half,  when  they  are 
prepared  for  use.     Figure  87.     Then  when  the  higher 


sow  FURROWS  ARE  MADB.  109 

half  Is  placed  on  a  level  with  the  lower  half  of 
the  preceding  plug,  the  lower  half  will  be  exactly  in 
position  to  receive  the  leg  of  the  level  to  lay  out  the  next 
space.  In  this  way  the  ground  is  gone  over  until  the 
whole  line  is  laid  out  aud  the  end  is  reached.  From 
these  trial  contour  lines  furrows  may  be  traced  and  laid 
out,  using  pegs,  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and 
a  plow  to  make  furrows,  following  the  line  of  the 
pegs.  Or  one  man  using  the  level  nearly  as  fast  as  he 
can  walk,  may  be  followed  by  a  boy  or  another  man  with 
a  hoe  made  for  this  purpose,  wdth  a  blade  18  inches  in 
width,  Avith  which  a  furrow  is  rapidly  opened,  almost 
as  fast  as  the  line  can  be  laid  out.  The  distributing  fur- 
rows may  be  laid  out  in  straight  lines  across  the  contour 
lines,  see  fig.  82,  which  wall  save  labor.  The  main  canal, 
a,  a,  fig.  82^  passes  along  the  highest  part  of  the  field. 
The  contour  lines,  which  are  the  lines  of  level,  see  dotted 
lines  h,  b,  are  run  from  the  canal  on  either  side  and 
meander  with  the  irregularities  of  the  surface.  To  avoid 
the  meandering  of  the  distributing  furrows,  they  are 
made  to  run  in  sti'aight  lines  from  the  canal,  cutting 
across  the  contour  lines  with  what  fall  may  be  found 
necessary  ;  these  furrows  are  shown  at  c,  c,  c.  By  regu- 
lating the  supply  of  water  so  that  all  is  absorbed,  none 
need  go  to  waste.  But  it  would  be  safe  to  run  a  drainage 
furrow  to  carry  off  any  accidental  surplus  across  the  lowest 
portions  of  the  distributing  canals,  as  shown  by  the  dark 
lines,  d,  d. 

When  the  furrows  arc  properly  leveled,  the  soil  may  bo 
watered,  cither  by  saturation  from  the  furrows  down- 
wards, in  the  case  of  steep  hill  sides,  or  by  ta])ping  tho 
furrows,  and  causing  the  water  to  escape  downwards  from 
them.  The  method  of  watering  lands  of  considerable 
slope  ;  that  is,  of  more  than  five  feet  in  a  hundred,  or  ten 
inches  in  IG  feet,  must  ])e  different  from  that  previously 
described  in  \X\u  chapter,  or  by  flooding  ;  on  the  contrary 


200  IRRIGATION. 

tlie  water  must  be  led  downwards  from  the  furrow  in  a 
thin  sheet  or  in  numerous  trickling  streams,  which  may 
be  made  to  cover  the  intervals  between  the  furrows. 
There  will  be,  however,  some  instances,  and  in  time,  aftef 
the  best  of  the  irrigable  lands  have  been  occupied,  the 
lajority  of  the  tracts  left  will  be  of  this  character,  in 
viiich  the  surface  will  offer  more  than  usual  dilBculties 
in  the  way  of  preparation  for  irrigation.  These  tracts 
referred  to  are  hilly  lands,  or  so  called  foot  hills  ;  high 
prairie  lands  or  bluffs  bordering  the  more  tractable  rivej 


Fig.  88.— IMPROVEMENT   OF   A   HILL-SIDE. 

bottoms  and  valleys.  The  surfaces  of  such  lands  are  in 
general  cut  up  with  hollows,  ravines,  gulleys,  and  similar 
irregularities  of  a  somewhat  miniature  character,  but 
which  nevertheless  offer  obstacles  to  the  passage  of  water 
channels  ;  or  there  may  be  aprupt  declines  and  rounded 
protuberances,  which  will  require  modifying  to  some  ex- 
tent. By  some  system  of  preparation  all  such  lands  may 
be  brought  under  irrigation,  and  a  few  typical  cases  are 


Fig.  89. — MANNER    OF   FILLING   A   GULLET. 

here  referred  to  with  the  requisite  treatment.  A  profile 
of  a  hill  too  steep  in  one  portion  to  be  irrigated,  is  repre- 
sented by  the  dotted  lines  in  fig.  88.  The  rounded  out- 
line, a,  h,  c,  offers  an  obstruction  to  both  water  furrows 
and  the  passage  of  men  or  animals.  By  cutting  away 
the  projecting  portion  at  J,  and  depositing  it  in  the  hot- 


IMPROTEMEXT    OF    IlILL-SIDES.  201 

torn  at  c,  tliG  outline,  as  shown  by  the  dark  line,  is  made 
passable  and  easy  to  irrigate  by  the  method  applicable  to 
lands  of  considerable  slope,  (see  figures  73  and  74  with 
accompanying  descriptions),  or  by  that  described  in  the 
preceding  paragraph.  xV  guUey  or  a  hollow  in  a  moderate- 
ly sloping  surface  is  shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  fig.  89. 
This  difficulty  is  removed  by  taking  away  the  portions 
above  the  dark  line,  and  depositing  them  in  the  hollow 
beneath  it ;  thus  bringing  the  new  surface  into  conform- 
ity with  that  surrounding  it,  and  producing  an  easy  slope. 
In  case  the  surface  soil  is  thin  and  the  subsoil  poor,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  first  remove  the  surface  soil  from  both 
the  portion  to  be  covered,  and  that  to  be  moved,  and 
place  it  on  one  side.     When  the  leveling  is  finished,  the 


Fig.  i!0. — TERRACING   A   HILL-SIDE. 

surface  soil  is  returned  and  the  subsoil  covered  with  it  as 
before.  There  are  frequent  hill-sides,  all  through  the 
country,  which  offer  no  impediment  to  a  destructive  flow 
of  water  down  their  slopes,  and  unsightly  and  incon- 
venient gulleys  and  wash-outs  are  caused  by  this  unob- 
structed flow.  The  terracing  of  such  slopes  would  pre- 
vent the  destructive  wasting,  and  would  render  them 
amenable  to  easy  irrigation,  either  by  surplus  rain  water 
collected  from  the  slopes  in  reservoirs,  or  by  water  brought 
to  them  by  elevation  or  otherwise.  Fig.  00  is  intended 
to  represent  such  a  hillside.  The  original  jtrolllc  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  line,  and  the  terraced  outline  by  the  dark 
line.  This  work  may  be  done  almost  wholly  by  the  plow, 
and  in  dillicult  cases  partly  by  the  plow,  and  partly  by 
the  ordinary  horse-shovel.     Upon  the  remodelled  surface 


202  IRRIGATION. 

the  water  is  retained,  instead  of  flowing  in  streams  use- 
lessly and  destructively  down  the  slope,  and  sinks  into 
the  soil  moistening  the  whole  as  it  percolates  through 
the  subsoil  and  again  reaches  the  light,  lower  down.  Or 
the  terraces  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  lead  the  rain  water 
into  a  reservoir,  where  it  may  be  stored,  and  used  to  irri- 
gate the  lower  portion  of  the  slope  in  the  drier  part  of 
the  season. 

As  the  preservation  of  a  level  or  smoothly  sloping  sur- 
face is  the  main  point  in  preparing  the  soil  for  irrigation, 
it  is  important  to  have  implements  well  adapted  to  this 
necessary  work,  and  also  to  prepare  furrows  quickly  and 
perfectly.  There  is  no  need  for  costly  implements,  but 
very  effective  ones  may  be  constructed  with  little  labor 
and  skill.  To  level  the  ground  is  the  first  work  after 
plowing  and  pulverizing  the  surface.  To  do  this  cheaply, 
a  scraper  that  can  be  operated  by  horse-power  is  needed. 
One  upon  which  the  operator  can  ride  would  be  most  con- 
venient, as  the  work  may  then  be  overlooked  with  ease, 
and  the  weight  of  the  rider  would  add  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  implement.  A  horse-scraper,  much  used  in  Cali- 
fornia for  leveling  ground  plowed  for  irrigation,  consists  of 
a  frame,  4  feet  wide  and  6  feet  long,  iiiounted  upon  a  pair 
of  low  wheels,  and  constructed  of  planks,  upon  which  the 
driver  rides.  A  tongue  is  fixed  to  the  central  part  of  the 
frame,  by  which  the  machine  is  drawn  along.  A  scraper 
is  fixed  to  the  front  of  tlie  frame  in  a  perpendicular  or 
a  sloping  direction,  as  may  be  desired.  Handles,  or  guides, 
are  fixed  to  the  scraper,  by  which  this  direction  is  govern- 
ed. The  scraper  is  a  plank,  12  feet  long  and  a  foot  and 
a  half  wide,  shod  at  the  bottom  edge  by  a  steel' shoe.  A 
half  circular,  flat,  iron  bar  is  bolted  to  the  front  of  the 
scraper  and  passes  through  an  iron  strap  fixed  beneath 
the  tongue.  The  bar  is  pierced  with  a  number  of  holes, 
and  a  hole  is  made  through  the  tongue  so  that  an  iron 
pin  may  be  passed  through  both  tongue  and  bar.     By 


LEVELING   THE    SURFACE 


203 


means  of  this  contrivance  tlie  plank  may  be  moved  from 
a  straight  to  a  diagonal  direction  across  the  path  traveled, 
and  the  earth   is  consequently  drawn  forward  or  thrown 


Fig.  91. — EARTH-SCRAPER. 

off  to  one  side,  or  both  together.  In  this  way  a  newly 
plowed  field  is  leveled  very  cpiickly,  and  is  easily  prepared 
for  furrowing.     A  scraper  very  easily  made  is  shown  at 

PI 


''p 

n 

R 

n" 

-                    .                   . 

B 

"n 

n 

n 

r 

* 

• 

A 


iir 


-f- 


u 


FijT.  92. — FHENCII   SCRAPKR. 

fig.  01.     Tt   consists  of   a  cciilnil   plunk   :ind    two  otlior 
planks  hinged  to  it  ad  wings,  and  adjusted   in   dill'i  ivnt 


204 


1EBIGATI0^'. 


positions,  and  so  held  by  means  of  strong  braces.  It  is 
shod  with  steel,  and  is  furnished  with  a  tongue  for  draft. 
By  adjusting  the  wings  the  earth  may  be  scraped  in 
difEerent  ways,  as  may  be  desired  ;  and  ridges  may  be 
formed  by  it,  by  proper  adjustment  of  the  wings  and 
shape  of  the  central  plank.  Another  implement  for  this 
purpose  is  used  among  the  French  and  Italian  irrigators, 
■ffhich  is  very  effective,  and  is  employed  as  frequently  as 


# 


Fig.  93. — FORM   OF   SCRAPEB. 

the  plow.  It  consists  of  a  frame,  seen  at  fig.  92,  of 
timber  bolted  or  mortised  together,  and  braced  with  two 
diagonal  braces  at  the  front.  It  is  generally  square  in 
shape  and  admits  of  being  made  of  any  suitable  size. 
Tvo  cross-pieces.  A,  and  B,  are  provided  with  metal 
shoes,    similar  in   shape   to   plane-irons,   which  project 

beneath  the  surface,  as  shown 
at  figs.  93,  and  94.  As  the 
machine  is  drawn  across  the 
field  the  scrapers  take  off  every 
protuberance,  and  deposit  the 
loosened  soil  in  the  hollows, 
and  in  time,  by  passing  across 
the  field  in  different  direc- 
tions, a  perfect  level  is  gained. 
To  enable  this  machine  to  be 
Yig  91— E>-i.ABGED  VIEW.  transported  from  place  to 
place  more  readilv,  the  upper  side  of  the  side-pieces  may 
he  provided  with 'shoes  made  of  light  bar-iron,  affixed  m 
the  manner  shown  at  fig.  95.  When  it  is  to  be  moved  from 
the  field  it  is  simplv  turned  over,  and  glides  over  the  soil 
upon  these  shoes.  As  the  implement  will  be  in  constant 
use  it  should  be  stoutly  made  and  carefully  preserved. 
When  a  smooth,  level  surface  has  been  obtained,  the  seed 


BOLLBRS. 


205 


sown  and  the  field  harrowed,  the  soil  may  ho  furrowed  by 
passing  over  it  in  the  direction  in  which  the  water  is  to 
flow  upon  it,  a  roller  provided  with  corrugations  npon 
its  surface,  each  of  which  leaves  a  small  distributing  fur- 
row. See  fig.  9G.  This  roller  may  be  made  of  cast  iron 
disks,  18  inches  or  more  in  diameter,  and  of  such  a  thick- 


.^ 


Fi^.  95. — SCRAPER   rSTEBTED. 


ness  as  may  conform  to  the  distance  between  the  furrows, 
or  the  disks  may  be  made  of  sand  and  cement,  forming 
in  reality  artificial  stone.  The  cement  may  be  shaped  in 
wooden  molds.  These  disks  will  have  holes  two  inches 
in  diameter  through  their  centers,  through  which  an  axle, 
consisting  of  rolled-iron  bar  or  shaft,  may  be  placed. 
The  axle  may  be  fixed  at  the  ends  in  a  wooden  frame, 
provided  with  a  tongue  for  draft.  By  such  a  method  of 
construction  suflBcient  weight  may  be  secured  to  compact 
the  soil  and  make  the  furrows  durable.     Another  form  of 


Fig.  96. — CORKLGATED    ROLLER. 

roller  is  shown  at  fig.  97.  This  may  be  made  of  circular 
sections  of  oak  plank.  30  inches  in  diameter,  with  others 
placed  alternately  with  these,  of  30  inches  in  diameter. 
These  sections  may  all  be  independent  of  each  other,  but 
it  will  be  more  convenient  if  they  are  in  pairs  or  triplets  ; 
for  the  reason  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  these 


206 


IRRIGATION. 


sections  of  several  pieces,  and  it  will  be  easy  to  bolt  them 
together  by  crossing  the  pieces  of  one  section  upon  those 
of  another,  or  two  more.  The  most  desirable  plan  will 
probably  be  to  rr-iike  tbem  in  trijDlets  in  the  manner  shown 


Fig.  97. — SECTION  ROLLEE. 

in  fig.  98,  the  dotted  lines  showing  the  manner  in  wliich 
tiie  joints  of  eacli  section  cross  those  of  the  others. 
These  sections  may  be  p^t'^ed  upon  an  axle,  as  previously 
described,  and  provided  'mth  a  frame,  upon  which  there 
may  be  a   seat  for  the  driver.     Various  other  forms  of 

rollers  may  be  devised  which 
will  answer  the  purpose  of 
making  furrows  for  those 
crops  tluit  cover  the  ground 
entirely,  and  which  are  sown 
either  in  narrow  drills  or 
broadcast.  For  such  crops 
it  might  be  desirable  to  make 
the  drills,  as  well  as  the  dis- 
tributing furrow,  to  run  in 
an  east  and  west  direction 
when  this  is  practicable. 
Tl:e  ground  Avill  thus  be 
shaded  from  the  southern  sun  by  the  growing  crop,  and 
the  moistened  flirrows  will  be  protected  from  a  too  rapid 
evaporation.  The  furrows  maybe  made  to  traverse  the 
ground  between  the  drills,  leaving  the  drills  and  furrows 
alternate. 


Fiff.  98. — FORM  OF   SECTION. 


DAMS.  207 

It  is  obvious  that  tlie  use  of  the  rollers  here  suggested 
is  only  applicable  to  the  graiu  crops,  and  not  for  those 
that  are  to  be  cultivated. 


JHAPTEE    XVIII. 

THE    dUPPLf   CF    WATER.— DAMS— PUMPS.— RESERVOIRS.— 
ARTESIAN    WELLS. 

Dams. — For  extensive  irrigation,  the  available  supply 
of  water  can  be  found  only  in  permanent  streams  ;  large 
and  copious  wells,  from  which  the  water  is  raised  by 
pumps  of  great  capacity,  operated  by  steam,  or  in  ex- 
tensive reservoirs,  in  which  the  drainage  of  large  areas 
of  mountain  territory  is  collected.  No  dependence  cfvn 
be  placed  upon  artesian  wells,  though  the  contrary  has 
been  erroneously  taught  by  some  writers  having  a  limited 
acquaintance  with  this  subject.  This  expectation  has 
been  shown  in  a  previous  chapter,  to  be  delusiAC,  both  on 
account  of  the  limited  supply  of  water  that  can  be  thus 
obtained,  and  the  costliness  of  the  system.  For  excep- 
tional cases,  these  wells  may  be  employed  with  profit. 
These  cases  will  be  found  to  exist  where  extensive  water- 
bearing strata  are  depressed  in  a  basin  shaped  area,  at  a 
moderate  depth  beneath  the  surface,  so  that  a  copious 
and  permanent  supply  can  be  procured  at  a  moderate 
cost,  and  where  the  area  to  be  irrigated  i.s  small.  The 
futility  of  depending  upon  artesian  wells,  in  other  cases 
than  those  above  cited,  will  be  evident  when  the  principle 
upon  which  they  operate,  is  explained  further  on  in  tliis 
chapter. 

For  the  present,  and  for  many  years  to  come  the  main 


208  lEEIGATION. 

Bupply  for  irrigation  will  be  derived  from  streams.  The 
water,  iu  most  cases,  will  be  taken  directly  from  the 
stream  at  its  regular  level,  by  means  of  a  main  supply 
canal,  into  which  it  is  diverted  by  the  ordinary  flow,  or 
by  means  of  wing  drains  placed  in  the  stream ;  or  else 
the  level  of  the  stream  must  be  raised  by  a  dam,  and  the 
flow  diverted  at  a  higher  level  than  the  usual  one.  It  is 
always  advisable,  in  fact  necessary  when  profit  is  the  main 
purpose,  to  choose  such  a  location  for  the  commencement 
of  the  canal  as  shall  give  the  greatest  possible  head  of 
water.  The  cost  of  a  few  miles  of  canal  may  be  in- 
significant, as  compared  with  the  value  of  several  thousand 
acres  of  land  that  may  be  brought  under  irrigation,  by 
adding  a  foot  to  the  head  of  the  supply.  But  a  dam  may 
often  be  constructed  at  a  much  less  cost  than  would  be 


Fig.  99. — LOSGITUDINAI.  WING  DAM. 

necessary  to  carry  a  large  canal  a  distance  of  even  a 
thousand  feet.  If  the  level  needs  to  be  raised  but  a  few 
feet,  a  wing  dam  maybe  constructed.  This  should  be 
placed  where  the  level  of  the  stream  falls  sufficiently, 
and  should  be  carried  up  the  stream,  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  the  bank,  as  far  as  may  be  necessary  to 
raise  the  water  to  the  hight  required. 

The  manner  of  constructing  the  wing  dam  will  vary 
according  to  the  character  of  the  stream,  the  nature  of 
the  river  bed,  and  the  materials  to  be  most  conveniently 
procured.  The  typical  form  of  the  dam  is  shown  at  fig. 
99,  in  which  the  structure  is   seen  projected  up   the 


CONSTKUCTION    OF    DAMS.  209 

Btream  to  a  point  at  which  the  required  level  is  reached. 
This  point  should  be  found  by  careful  survey,  before  any 
work  is  done,  because  the  strength  and  size  of  the  dam 
must  be  proportioned  to  the  pressure  of  the  water  con- 
tained within  it,  and  this  is  in  a  ratio  with  the  hight  of 
head  of  the  confined  portion  of  the  stream.  This  kind 
of  dam  very  rarely  requires  elaborate  construction,  but  as 
it  is  exposed  to  frequent  erosive  washing  by  the  stream, 
in  floods,  it  should  be  built  of  such  materials  as  are 
known  to  bind  well  together.  When  but  little  head  is 
required,  a  very  simple  dam  of  brush,  stone,  and  earth, 
will  be  suflBcient.  The  work  is  commenced  at  the  head  of 
the  cf  oal,  which  is  first  excavated  to  the  proper  depth, 
tip  to  the  river  bank  where  the  head-gate  is,  (see  a  in  the 
figure),  properly  constructed.  The  building  of  the  wing 
dam  is  carried  up  the  stream  from  this  point.  A  few 
piles  driven  into  the  river  bed,  three  feet  apart  in  a  double 
row  would  be  advisable  at  this  point,  and  for  such  a  dis- 
tance up  the  stream  as  may  seem  proper,  as  this  point  of 
the  dam  is  exposed  to  the  greatest  pressure,  and  is  gener- 
ally the  weakest ;  for  the  reason  that  in  all  earth-work 
the  junction  of  the  old  and  new  material  is  the  most 
difficult  to  consolidate  evenly.  If  brush  is  to  be  con- 
veniently procured,  it  may  be  interwoven  between  the 
piles  of  each  row,  and  rammed  down  compactly.  Cross- 
ties  may  be  bolted  or  pinned  to  the  piles,  to  prevent  them 
from  spreading,  and  earth  is  then  thrown  between  them. 
Brush  should  be  placed  between  the  rows  of  piles,  and 
the  brush  should  be  placed  so  that  the  buts  lie  down 
stream,  and  tlie  fine  part  in  tlie  contrary  direction.  As 
the  earth  is  dumped  into  the  dam  it  Avill  cover  tlie  brush. 
Afterwards  coarse  gravel  or  stone  may  be  used  to  fill  on 
the  outside.  In  this  manner  the  dam  is  carried  onwards 
to  the  extremity  where  brush  covered  with  earth  will  be 
sufficient  to  divert  the  current  where  the  diilerjuue 
betw^Qa  the  levels  is  but  sli^dit. 


210  IRRIGATION. 

Where  a  more  substantial  construction  is  needed,  or 
•where  the  current  is  so  swift  that  loose  earth  would  be 
carried  away,  the  method  of  construction  will  be  differ- 
ent. Crib  work  would  then  be  required,  or  else  the  pil- 
ing should  be  continued  to  the  end,  and  should  be  of  a 
substantial  character.  The  piling,  or  the  cribs,  should  be 
connected  by  stringers  and  cross-ties,  and  the  vacancies 
may  be  filled  with  brush  and  stone.  It  is  not  always 
necessary  that  the  dam  be  absolutely  tight,  as  if  it  were 
one  of  the  usual  kind  ;  if  it  diverts  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water,  that  is  all  that  is  required.  But  a  tight  dam 
may  be  made  in  this  manner,  if  the  cribs,  or  the  space 
between  the  piles  are  filled  with  brush  and  stone,  and 
earth  be  thrown  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  dam.     Then 


Fig.  100. — CROSS-WING   DAM, 

the  cribs,  or  piling,  serve  as  supports  to  the  dam,  and  the 
earth  serves  to  confine  the  water.  In  some  cases  wing 
dams  of  a  different  form  may  be  used.  Where,  for  in- 
stance, a  longitudinal  dam  would  need  to  be  of  extreme 
length,  because  of  the  inadequate  fall  of  the  stream,  and 
where  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  closing  the  stream  entirely, 
cross-wing  dams  maybe  constructed  in  the  manner  shown 
at  fig.  100.  Here  partial  dams  of  crib  work,  or  piles, 
filled  in  with  stone  ;  or  dams  of  logs,  brush,  and  earth, 
are  thrown  into  the  stream,  from  each  side,  but  not  upon 
the  same  line,  so  that  when  each  reaches  the  middle,  an 
open  space  it  left  through  which  a  portion  of  the  water 
escapes  in  a  rapid.     The  distance  between  the  ends  of 


SOME   NECESSARY    CONSIDERATION'S.  211 

the  dams  requires  to  be  arranged  so  as  to  raise  the  level 
of  the  water  above  tliem  to  a  sufficient  hight,  and  jet 
leave  an  open  passage  with  a  current  that  may  not  be  in- 
surmountable to  vessels  or  boats  navigating  the  stream. 

When  dams  of  the  ordinary  construction  are  required, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  consider,  before  the  workisbeguu, 
the  principles  upon  which  their  stability  is  founded. 
This  is  more  especially  necessary,  when  the  work  is  of 
any  considerable  magnitude,  and  where  a  failure  may  in- 
volve the  loss  of  the  money  spent,  and  much  direct  and 
indirect  damage  besides.  The  chief  points  for  consider- 
ation in  this  regard  are,  the  position  of  the  dam  in  the 
stream  ;  the  material  of  which  it  is  to  be  made  ;  the  form 
most  consistent  with  permanence  and  stability  ;  and  the 
manner  of  its  construction. 

The  position  of  the  dam  has  reference  only  to  its 
power  of  resisting  the  pressure  of  the  water  behind  it. 
No  increase  of  the  flow  of  water  into  the  canal,  or  lateral, 
can  be  gained  by  placing  a  dam  in  a  diagonal  position 
across  the  stream,  instead  of  at  right  angles  to  the  banks, 
as  has  been  stated  by  some  who  have  written  upon  this 
subject  in  the  jjublic  journals.  As  an  instance  of  the  in- 
correct and  misleading  notions  thus  spread  abroad,  by  un- 
informed writers,  might  be  cited  the  following  from  an 
article  on  *' Practical  Irrigation  in  Colorado,"  published 
in  the  Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1871. 
The  writer  says,  'Mt  has  been  contended  that  the  stagna- 
tion of  water  extends  to  a  sensible  hight,  above  the 
horizontal  line  of  the  regurgitation  from  the  dam  or 
sluice,  or  any  other  fixed  obstacle.  T/us  is  accounted  for 
hy  the  compression  or  closer  adhesion  of  the  particles  of  the 
water.''''  Again  he  says,  "if  you  confine  the  water,  and 
divert  it  from  its  natural  course,  rjou  may  couipress  it  into 
a  smaller  space  ;  but  the  same  quantity  will  be  found  be- 
low the  compression,  as  is  found  above  it!"  Now,  it 
ought  to  be  known  that  water  is  practically  incompressible, 


212  IBRIGATIOK.   ^ 

and  rather  than  submit  to  i^ressure,  its  particles  may  be 
forced  through  the  infinitely  small  pores  of  cast  iron,  if 
the  iron  is  strong  enough  to  resist  the  enormous  pressure 
required.  So  many  instances  of  this  property  of  water 
are  supposed  to  be  popularly  known,  that  a  statement 
to  the  contrary  not  only  misleads  and  confuses  those  who 
read  it,  but  tends  to  cast  doubt  and  suspicion  upon  what- 
ever else  the  writer  may  say. 

To  expect,  therefore,  that  by  the  use  of  diverging 
entrances  to  a  canal,  or  by  the  use  of  a  funnel-shaped 
sluice,  a  larger  quantity  of  water  may  be  forced  into  a 
channel,  will  be  found  fallacious,  and  will  lead  to  disap- 
pointment. A  funnel-shaped  box  will  pass  no  more  water 
through  it,  than  can  be  passed  through  another  with 
straight  sides,  and  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  narrow 
tliroat  of  the  funnel,  unless  the  inclination  is  changed 
and  the  velocity  increased.  This  is  an  established  prin- 
ciple of  hydraulics.  Other  principles  of  hydraulics,  which 
relate  to  the  construction  and  use  of  dams,  are,  that  the 
pressure  of  water  is  equal  in  all  directions  ;  that  it  is 
exerted  only  in  proportion  to  the  hight  and  area  of  the 
base  of  the  column  of  water  resting  upon  a  given  space  ; 
that  water  will  always  seek  and  maintain  an  exact  level, 
and  that  the  disturbance  of  the  level  sets  it  into  im- 
mediate motion. 

The  pressure  of  a  body  of  water  upon  a  perpendicular 
wall,  a  dam,  or  any  other  obstacle  to  its  flow,  is  exerted 
to  force  it  forwards  in  the  direction  of  the  stream.  A 
dam  placed  directly  across  the  stream  is,  therefore,  weak 
and  faulty.  It  will  be  rendered  very  much  stronger  by 
being  placed  across  the  stream  in  a  curved,  or  angular, 
form,  with  its  apex  towards  the  resistance,  and  giving  it 
somewhat  the  shape,  and  consequent  strength,  of  an  arch. 
The  material  of  the  dam  sliould  be  selected  for  its  im- 
permeability to  water,  and  for  its  more  perfect  capacity 
for  binding  together,  and  resisting  disintegration-     Tb^r^ 


BEST  FORM  FOB  DAMS.  213 

is  HO  better  material  for  a  dam  than  earth  which  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  clay,  with  enough  sand  intimately 
mixed  in  the  mass  to  make  it  easily  worked,  and  closely 
compacted.  But  dams  may  be  made  of  rock  and  timber, 
as  well  as  of  earth,  the  former  materials  being  selected, 
when  the  work  needs  to  be  of  the  most  substantial 
character,  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  wearing  action  of 
strong  and  heavy  currents  of  water  which  would  tear 
away  an  earth  work  in  a  short  time.  Where  this  contin- 
gency is  likely  to  occur,  only  timber  or  rock  should  be 
used,  and  the  manner  of  construction  should  be  left  to 
the  direction  of  a  practical  engineer.  For  a  work  of 
timber,  cribbing  filled  in  and  backed  with  rock,  and 
planked  thoroughly  well,  will  be  found  very  substantial 
and  satisfactory.  There  are  many  different  kinds  and 
forms  of  cribs  with  which  the  hydraulic  engineer  is 
familiar,  of  which  those  may  be  selected  that  will  meet 
the  particular  features  of  the  cases  requiring  them,  and 
which  for  want  of  space  cannot  be  referred  to  here.  A 
few  will  be  described  further  on,  of  those  only  which 
may  be  found  useful  to  the  irrigator  who  desires  to  per- 
form his  own  engineering,  and  in  cases  where  professional 
assistance  may  not  be  required. 

Upon  the  form  of  the  dam  will  depend,  in  a  very  great 
measure,  its  strength  and  stability,  for  it  is  evident  that 
the  form  has  much  to  do  with  its  power  of  resisting  the 
enormous  pressure  bearing  upon  it,  and  Avhich  is  always 
exerted  either  to  overthrow  it  or  to  push  it  from  its 
foundation.  Further  than  this,  the  form  of  a  dam  should 
be  such  as  will  best  resist  the  wearing  and  abrading  action 
of  the  water.  A  typical  form  of  a  perfect  dam  is  shown 
at  fig.  101.  The  reasons  why  such  a  form  is  best  adai)ted 
for  its  purpose  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : 

It  is  evident  tluit  a  structure,  intended  to  sustain  a 
pressure  of  a  body  of  water,  can  fail  only  in  two  ways,  if 
its  solidity  is  preserved  from  disintegration  by  the  wear- 


S14  IRRIGATION, 

ing  actions  of  currents.  These  are — either  by  being 
overturned  by  the  horizontal  pressure  of  the  water,  or  by 
being  forced  from  its  position  bodily  by  sliding  upon  its 
base.  The  first  alternative  may  be  examined  by  con- 
sidering what  power  a  certain  structure — a  vertical  wall 
for  instance — exercises  to  resist  the  pressure  of  water,  and 
what  the  pressure  amounts  to  for  a  certain  bight.  The 
pressure  of  water  upon  any  surface  immersed  in  it,  is 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  surface  multiplied  by  the  depth 
of  its  center  of  gravity  below  the  level  of  the  water,  and 
by  the  weight  of  a  unit  of  water.  The  unit  adopted  in 
these  calculations  is  a  foot,  and  a  cubic  foot  of  water 
weighs  62'  |,  pounds.     The  resulting  pressure  is  therefore 


Fig.  101. — GENERAl,  FORM   OF  DAM. 

readily  found.  Let  it  be  supposed  that  a  wall  10  feet 
high  is  sustaining  a  body  of  water  behind  it,  as  shown  in 
fisf.  103.  One  foot  in  length  of  the  wall  is  taken  as  a 
basis  for  the  calculation.  There  is  then  10  square  feet 
subject  to  pressure  ;  the  depth  of  the  center  of  gravity 
is  5  feet ;  and  the  weight  of  a  foot  of  water  is  62'  1^  pounds. 
The  product  of  these  numbers  is  3,125,  which  is  the 
number  of  pounds  pressing  upon  one  foot  in  length  of 
the  wall.  But  this  pressure,  in  this  case,  is  not  evenly 
distributed  over  the  whole  wall,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
mobility  of  the  water,  the  pressure  is  so  distributed  as  to 
be  equal  to,  and  to  operate  as,  a  single  force  acting  at  a 
point  one-third  of  the  hight  of  the  wall  from  the  bot- 
tom. For  this  reason  the  product  previously  arrived  at 
should  be  multiplied  by  one-third  of  the  hight,  or  3'  I,, 
which  will  give  as  the  total  pressure  exerted  to  overthrow 
or  push  forward  the  wall,  10,406  pounds  on  every  foot  in 


THEORY    OF   THEIR   CONSTRUCTION. 


215 


length.  To  resist  this,  there  is  nothing  but  the  weight 
of  the  wall,  and  as  we  have  already  the  length  and  hight, 
the  thickness  only  is  needed  to  give  the  required  resist- 
ance. The  rule  for  finding  tliis,  or  to  be  more  precise, 
for  finding  the  required  weight  of  the  wall  for  its  stabil- 
ity, is  to  multiply  together  the  hight  of  the  wall  in  feet, 
by  half  the  thickness,  and  by  112,  the  weight  in  pounds 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  masonry,  and  divide  the  amount  of 
pressure,  previously  ascertained,  (10,406),  by  the  sum 
given.  In  this  case  we  get  4'| ,  feet  as  the  required  thick- 
ness of  the  structure. 

It  is  evident  that  this  supposed  case  is  one  of  the  weak- 
est illustrations  that  could  be  chosen,  because  a  wall  of 


Fig.  103. 

this  character  is  poorly  calculated  to  resist  the  pressure. 
But  it  is  a  perfectly  safe  metliod  of  calculation,  because 
all  the  errors  are  on  the  right  side.  If  we  take  oiT  a 
portion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  and  place  it  at  the 
bottom,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  illustration, 
fig.  102,  it  is  clear  that  we  remove  some  weight  from  a 
point  where  it  is  not  needed,  and  put  it  wlicre  it  will  give 
much  greater  resistance,  both  to  oversetting,  and  dis- 
placing ;  removing  the  point  ii|ii)n  which  the  wall  must 
turn  in  case  of  overthrow,  and  therefore  iucreasiug  tlio 


216  lEBIGATION. 

leverage,  and  consequent  resistance,  and  also  greatly 
adding  to  the  tendency  to  resist  sliding.  The  more  this 
weight  at  the  bottom  is  increased,  the  stronger,  there- 
fore, is  the  dam.  This  principle  of  calculation  applied 
to  a  bank  of  earth,  or  any  other  construction  of  the  form, 
shown  in  fig.  101,  will  easily  show  that  the  power  of 
resistance  to  overthrow  is  immensely  increased  when  long 
slopes  are  made  instead  of  vertical  walls.  Besides  this 
increase,  the  downward  pressure  of  the  body  of  water 
upon  the  inner  slope,  adds  to  the  resistance  against  both 
overturn  and  sliding,  and  when  the  foundation  is  excavat- 
ed, as  shown  in  the  illustration,  this  tendency  to  resist 
sliding  is  again  increased,  because  the  adhesion  between 
the  old  and  new  earth  is  rendered  more  perfect.  The 
thorough  incorporation  of  the  old  and  new  surfaces  of 
earth  must  be  carefully  made,  as  a  preliminary  condition 
of  stability.  The  full  conditions  of  stability  include  a 
weight  of  bank  which  with  the  vertical  pressure  exercised 
by  the  water,  to  hold  it  down,  will  equal  the  horizontal 
pressure  of  the  water,  against  the  dam,  and  leave  a  sur- 
plus to  meet  any  unexpected  contingencies.  In  addition 
to  these,  the  materials  of  the  construction  must  be  of 
such  a  cliaracter  as  will  resist  percolation  of  the  water, 
and  will  bond  together  intimately  and  with  cohesion. 
It  is  not  often  that  dams  give  way  by  sliding  upon  their 
foundations  ;  but  an  instance  of  this  has  happened  in  the 
author's  experience,  when  from  faulty  construction  an 
earth  dam,  founded  upon  a  smooth  rock  bottom,  gave 
way  bodily  to  the  pressure  of  the  water.  But  this  dam 
was  made  by  an  inexperienced  man,  in  defiance  of  pro- 
fessional advice,  and  of  proper  principles  of  construction. 
The  best  examples  of  the  inside  slope  of  a  dam  is  either 
3  feet  horizontal  to  1  foot  perpendicular,  or  2'|^  to  1. 
The  outside  slope  may  be  from  l'|,  to  .3,  to  1,  depending 
upon  the  character  of  the  material,  and  the  means  used 
to  prevent  the  surface  f'-om  washing  or  crumbling  away. 


EAHTn    BAMS.  217 

These  may  be  either  by  covering  the  face  Tvith  sods,  ia 
case  no  overflow  is  permitted,  or  ^Wth  masonry  or  phmk- 
ing. 

The  manner  of  constructing  a  dam  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  The  modern  method  is  to  introduce  a  pud- 
dle wall  in  the  middle,  to  place  selected  materials  upon 
each  side  of  this,  and  to  form  the  slopes  of  the  most 
convenient  materials  to  be  procured,  whether  gravel, 
rubble  stone,  or  waste  broken  rock.  But  there  are  many 
very  ancient  embankments,  still  existing,  that  have  been 
constructed  without  puddled  centers,  or  any  special  pre- 
cautions to  make  them  water-tight.  The  ancient  manner 
of  making  these  eml)ankments  was,  to  carry  the  eai-th  in 
baskets  upon  the  heads  of  the  workmen,  and  deposit  it 
where  it  was  required,  without  any  particular  care  as  to 
the  disposal  of  it.  The  constant  treading  and  the 
thorough  consolidation  of  the  earth,  by  being  thus  thrown 
in  small  quantities  beneath  the  feet  of  the  workmen, 
tended  to  make  a  well  incorporated,  homogeneous  mass, 
which  would  be  impenetrable  by  the  water.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  discover  any  better  mode  of  construction  tlian 
this.  A  dam  constructed  by  the  author  upon  an  uneven 
rock  bottom  which  furnished  an  excellent  foundation, 
and  of  a  crumbly,  loamy  clay  earth,  which  melted  down 
in  water  to  a  pasty  mass,  was  made  without  any  puddling, 
and  by  simply  carting  the  earth  and  dumping  it  into  its 
place  ;  the  stream  having  been  j)reviously  confined  within 
a  flume  of  timber  where  the  waste  gate  was  afterwards 
put  in.  The  treading  of  the  horses  and  men,  and  tho 
packing  caused  by  the  cart  wheels,  so  jjerfoctly  con- 
solidated the  earth  that  no  leak  was  observable,  and  tho 
dam  is  now  probably  better  than  it  was  when  first  made, 
15  years  ago.  This  dam  was  faced  upon  both  sides  with 
wast?  broken  rock,  and  in  one  severe  froslu't,  water  has 
poured  over  the  top  to  a  depth  of  more  than  two  feet,  for 
eeveral  days,  without  any  injury 
10 


318  IRRIGATION. 

As  a  general  rule,  for  dams  of  not  more  tlian 
20  feet  in  hight,  when  earth  of  the  best  kind,  or  such  as 
is  mentioned  above,  can  be  procured,  puddling  may  be 
dispensed  with.  When  puddling  is  used,  it  would  seem 
to  be  more  properly  placed  upon  the  inner  side  of  the 
work,  with  the  selected  material  next  to  it,  and  the  poor- 
est used  as  a  backing  to  support  the  work  ;  this,  although 
seeming  reasonable,  is  not  in  accordance  with  practice, 
and  no  one  seems  inclined  to  risk  the  innovation  upon  an 
accepted  custom,  with  the  risk  of  blame  for  it  in  case  of 
failure  from  whatever  cause. 

The  first  requisite,  in  constructing  a  dam  of  any  magni- 
tude, is  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  foundation,  and 
to  excavate  this  to  a  bed  of  solid  rock  or  impermeable 
earth.  If  springs  are  encountered  the  location  may  be 
abandoned  and  another  chosen,  or  else  the  spring  must 
be  carried  away  in  tight  drains,  beyond  the  outer  slope 
of  the  dam.  The  channel  for  the  water  flow  is  then  to 
be  constructed — in  case  the  dam  is  to  be  used  for  a  reser- 
voir— in  tlic  solid  subsoil,  and  the  pipes  or  culverts  used 
for  this  purpose  should  be  flanged  every  few  feet  of  the 
length,  that  the  puddling  around  them  may  be  more 
thoroughly  compacted,  and  the  danger  of  leakage  at  tliis 
most  important  point,  by  the  creeping  of  the  water  along 
the  surface,  be  prevented.  All  disturbance  to  the  pipes 
or  culverts,  by  settling  of  the  work,  which  might  occur 
if  they  were  placed  in  the  body  of  the  dam,  is  thus 
avoided. 

The  best  of  the  selected  material  is  then  disposed  in 
thin  layers  upon  the  foundation,  and  well  rammed,  or 
puddled.  The  |5uddle  wall  may  be  carried  up  in  the 
centre  of  the  selected  earth  or  clay,  or  upon  the  inner  face 
of  it ;  which,  although  an  innovation  upon  established 
practice,  would  be  an  improvement  upon  it.  The  earth 
should  be  brought  to  the  dam  by  carts,  in  preference  to 
wheel-barrows  or  to  tip-cars  upon  a. track  although  the 


PtTDDLlNS.  219 

expense  may  be  greater,  because  of  the  more  perfect  con- 
solidation of  the  work  by  the  trampliiii^  of  tlic  horses, 
and  the  cutting  of  the  wheels.  It  should  be  disposed  in 
regular  layers,  of  2  to  3  feet  in  thickness,  over  the  whole 
work.  These  layers  should  be  depressed  at  the  center  of 
the  work,  so  as  to  give  a  basin  shaped  form  to  the  section. 
This  is  shown  in  fig,  101,  in  which  the  puddle  wall  is 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  dam. 

The  puddle  work  should  increase  in  thickness  downward, 
2  inches  for  every  foot  of  bight  over  and  above  the  ])roper 
thickness  at  the  top  water  line  of  the  dam.  The  object  of 
the  puddling  is  only  to  give  security  against  any  imper- 
fection in  the  rest  of  the  work,  through  which  water 
might  percolate  ;  but  if  the  earth  work  is  properly  con- 
structed, of  the  best  materials,  it  is  probable  that  the 
water  would  never  penetrate  more  than  a  few  feet  beyond 
the  surface,  and  would  never  reach  the  puddled  portion. 
Nevertheless,  puddling  should  not  be  omitted,  unless 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  and  even  then 
in  no  case  in  which  disaster  or  loss  of  life  might  result 
from  a  failure,  as  when  a  large  body  of  water  is  impound- 
ed in  a  reservoir.  When  a  sufficient  (piantity  of  selected 
materials  lias  been  placed  in  the  dam,  the  facing  on  either 
side  may  be  continued  to  the.  proper  slope,  with  any 
material  that  will  serve  the  purpose  ;  the  inner  slope  may 
be  finished  with  soft  material,  such  as  peat,  or  dredging 
from  marshes,  when  no  disturbance  by  waves,  or  wasliing 
is  to  be  apprehended,  but  the  outer  slope  should  consist 
of  solid  matter,  which  will  retain  its  position,  and  will 
not  crumble,  as  for  instance,  bnjken  stone,  rock,  or 
shaly  soil. 

When  an  earth  dam  is  thrown  across  a  stream,  the  most 
important  points  to  secure  are,  the  waste  gates,  tlie  outer 
slope  over  which  surplus  water  flows,  and  the  foundation. 
The  waste  gates  should  be  built  in  one;  of  tht'  hanks, 
which   should    be   dug  away  for   this  purpose,  ami    tiiu 


220  IRRIGATION-. 

frames  should  be  thoroughly  well  cased  in  with  planking, 
which  should  extend  some  distance  into  the  bank,  and 
be  well  protected  with  puddled  clay,  tightly  rammed  in 
aronnd  it.  The  outer  slope,  and  top  of  the  dam,  should 
be  of  plank  or  timber,  with  an  apron  upon  which  the 
overflow  is  received  and  carried  off.  The  bed  of  the 
river  at  the  foundation  should  be  Avell  searched  for  sunken 
logs,  or  brush,  which  should  be  removed  before  any  earth 
is  thrown  in.  These  points  should  be  looked  to  whether 
the  work  be  large,  or  small. 

For  small  streams,  dams  of  very  simple  construction 
will  be  sufficient.  Cribs  of  timber,  consisting  of  a  sill, 
an  upright  post  mortised  in  the  center  of  the  sill,  and  two 
timbers  placed  like  the  rafters  of  a  house— but  one  at  a 
greater  angle  than  tlie  other — from  the  ends  of  the  sill 
to  the  top  of  the  post,  are  placed  lengthwise  in  the 
bed  of  the  stream  for  the  framework  of  the  dam.  The 
timber  which  slopes  at  the  greater  angle  is  placed  at 
the  front  of  the  dam.  The  cribs  should  be  placed 
from  6  to  12  feet  apart,  as  the  stream  is  smaller  or  larger. 
They  are  joined  together  by  planks  or  timbers,  spiked  or 
bolted  to  them,  and  the  rear  of  the  dam  is  covered  with 
plank  jointed  and  fitted  together  very  closely.  Stone  or 
gravel  may  then  be  thrown  in,  until  the  cribs  are  filled, 
care  being  taken  to  pack  clay  closely  at  the  bottom, 
so  that  no  water  will  escape.  The  front  of  the  dam 
may  then  be  planked  over,  and  an  apron,  or  floor  of 
plank,  laid  to  protect  the  bed  of  the  stream  from  the 
waste  water.  The  earth-dam  upon  the  banks  of  the 
stream  must  be  carefully  joined  to  the  crib-dam,  and 
should  be  supported  in  the  center  by  posts  driven  in  the 
ground,  to  which  three  or  four  planks  in  hight  are  spiked. 
A  dam  of  this  kind  may  be  made  to  serve  for  streams  of 
any  size,  as  it  admits  of  expansion  in  length,  hight,  and 
width,  and  increase  of  strength,  indefinitely.  Where 
the  hight  required  is  not  more  than  four  feet,  a  dam  of 


BBUrSH    AND    KOCK    DAMS. 


221 


earth,  brush,  and  logs  may  be  made  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose. There  can  be  no  better  principle  of  construction 
adopted  for  such  dams,  than  that  made  use  of  instinct- 
ively by  those  sagacious  dam-builders,  the  beavers,  wliose 
works,  able  to  withstand  floods  and  freshets,  easily  made 
and  easily  repaired,  last  forages,  and  mock  in  their  simple 


lOo. — BKUSH  AND  LOG   DAM. 


strength  many  of  our  best  engineering  works.  These 
dams  have  a  foundation  of  mud  and  brusli,  wiiich  bind 
together  very  intimately  ;  the  brush  always  being  laid  with 
the  buts  down  stream,  arrests  all  floating  or  suspemk'd 
matter  which  is  brought  down  with  the  current,  and  thus 
adds  daily  and  constantly  to  the  material,  and  the 
strength  of  the  dam.  Into  this  brush  is  interwoven  logs 
and  sticks,  limbs  and  stems  of  trees,  and  stones,  so  placed 
that  the  pressure  of  the  water  tends  to  hold  them  down, 
and  the  interstices  are  filled  in  with  earth  which  is  also 


>^ 


'^rf^ 


thrown  upon  the  submerged  ends  of  the  limbers.  For 
dams  of  no  greater  higlit  than  a  few  feet,  and  of  a  length 
of  from  50  to  100  feet,  there  is  iione  more  siiiipl^',  useful, 
economical,  and  permanent  than  this.  For  .st; earns  (ho 
V)ttoms  of  which  are  soft,  sandy,  mucky,  or  muddy,  this 
Style  of  dum  has  no  superior.     A  section  of  a  dam  of  tbi^ 


222  IRRIGATION. 

kind  is  shown  at  fig.  103.  A  dani  made  of  piles  and  rock 
is  shown  at  fig.  104. 

This  form  of  dam  is  suitable  for  river  beds  in  which 
piles  can  be  easily  driven,  such  as  those  consisting  of 
quicksand,  mud  or  soft  earth,  upon  which  a  structure  not 
founded  upon  piles  would  be  neither  substantial  nor  per- 
manent. It  is  made  by  driving,  across  the  river,  three 
rows  of  piles,  of  graduated  lengths,  as  shown  in  the  en- 
graving. These  are  connected  by  stringers,  solidly  bolted 
to  them,  and  the  framework  is  stiffened,  where  necessary, 
by  girts  and  braces.  Cap  pieces  of  flattened  timber  are 
bolted  on  to  the  top,  and  the  whole  frame  is  filled  in  with 
rock,  and  then  planked  over.  The  face  may  be  filled  in 
with  fine  brush,  and  earth,  to  a  proper  slope.  Dams  of 
this  kind  may  be  made  of  great  lengths,  where  the  fall 
is  not  more  than  10  or  12  feet,  and  resist  the  most  severe 
freshets. 

In  taking  the  water  from  the  stream,  it  is  necessary  to 
consult  the  laws  which  control  the  motions  of  liquids, 
else  counter-currents  or  eddies  may  be  established,  which 
will  wear  away,  or  undermine  the  dam,  or  sluice.  The 
dam  should  slope  away  at  an  angle  toward  the  sluice,  so 
that  the  current  of  the  stream  may  be  easily  diverted  in- 
to the  canal  without  reflux,  or  regurgitation.  To  further 
this  end  the  dam  may  be  placed  diagonally  across  the 
stream,  or  partly  so,  and  the  floor  of  the  dam  should  be 
carried  so  far  up  the  stream  as  to  cover  the  entrance  to 
the  canal,  and  a  few  feet  into  it,  so  that  the  bed  may  be 
protected  from  washing  by  the  current. 

Pumps.— The  use  of  steam  pumps  in  irrigation,  will 
probably  be  found  profitable  within  a  few  years,  when 
the  valley  lands  that  are  easily  and  cheaply  irrigated,  are 
supplied  with  water.  The  surplus  then  running  to  waste 
will  eventually  be  raised  to  the  higher  lands,  by  whatever 
power  may  be  cheapest.  In  many  localities  there  are 
110  valley  lands,  but  the  banks  of  the  streams  are  abrupt^ 


USE  OF   STEAM.  223 

and  if  the  water  is  used  at  all  it  must  be  elevated.  "When 
it  is  considered  that  one  bushel  of  coal  contains  a  latent 
power  within  it,  sufficient  to  elevate  to  a  hight  of  one 
foot,  50,000,000,  (fifty  millions),  pounds  of  water,  or  a 
less  quantity  to  a  proportionately  greater  hight,  the  future 
probabilities  of  the  use  of  steam  pum})s  in  irrigation, 
will  not  seem  to  be  misjudged.  All  that  is  necessary  is 
to  consume  the  coal  beneath  a  boiler,  and  apply  the 
power  of  the  steam  in  the  most  economical  manner,  with 
the  best  constructed  engines  and  pumps,  to  the  work,  of 
bringing  the  water  where  it  is  required.  At  the  present 
time  water  is  thus  procured  by  one  farmer  at  least,  in 
California,  who  employs  a  steam  engine  and  a  2)ump,  to 
raise  water  from  a  well,  for  the  irrigation  of  his  crop  of 
vegetables  for  the  Sacramento  market.  The  high  price 
procured  for  his  product,  is  offset  to  some  extent  by  the 
high  price  of  coal,  which  costs  in  that  locality  from  $18 
to  $20  per  ton.  Where  coal  is  much  cheaper,  the  gain 
would  go  to  offset  the  probable  lower  prices  of  the  pro- 
duct. Yet  in  many  localities,  where  market  cro})s  are 
raised,  it  would  undoubtedly  pay  to  employ  steam  jiower 
to  raise  the  water,  either  from  streams  or  wells.  If  from 
wells,  reservoirs  or  tanks  would  be  required,  botli  for  the 
purpose  of  gaining  the  necessary  head  for  distri])ution, 
and  for  the  warming  of  the  water. 

There  is  a  large  variety  of  pumps  that  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  that  are  of  great  capacitv. 

No  mechanical  power  that  we  possess  is  so  chcnp,  or 
so  effo'ctive  as  steam.  The  effective  energy  contained  in 
one  bushel  of  coal  being  able  to  elevate  six  million  iral- 
lons  of  water  one  foot  hicli,  or  a  million  gallons  six  feet 
high,  or  a  hundred  thousand  gallons  GO  feet  high,  it  1)(>- 
comes  only  a  question  if  the  cost  of  coal  and  th;it  of  the 
application  of  the  power,  will  enable  us  to  use  it  jirofiliibly. 
It  is  not  to  bo  doubted  that  in  some  cases  now,  and  in 
numberless  cases  in  the  future,  the  possibility  of  the  use 


324 


IRRIGATION. 


of  steam  in  agriculture,  and  especially  in  irrigation  of 
arable  lands  may  become  usefully  available.  When  we 
see  that  the  consumption  of  one  bushel  of  coal,  costing 
20  to  40  cents,  in  a  day,  will  irrigate  22  acres  of  land  con- 
tinuously, and  as  much  more  than  that  as  the  continuity 
is  broken  and  the  consumption  per  acre  is  lessened,  it 
becomes  very  clear  that  there  are  many  cultivators  of  the 
ground  that  could  now  make  the  use  of  pumps  driven  by 
steam  to  pay  them  handsomely. 

Our  present  mechanical  appliances  for  raising  water  are 


Fig:.  106.— METHOD  OF  OPER- 
Flg.  105.— CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP.  ATING  A  CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP. 

very  wonderful.  The  great  rotary  pump  which  discharged 
the  enormous  cascade  of  water  at  the  Centennial,  which 
astonished  every  visitor  to  that  remarkable  display  of 
mechanical  powers,  is  ^ble  to  throw  100,000  gallons  per 


PUMPS. 


225 


minute.  This  would  supply  about  7,000  acres  of  land 
with  water  for  continuous  irri^'ation.  The  principal  iijxm 
which  this  powerful  pump  works  is  that  of  the  common 
propellor  of  the  steam  ship.  An  ordinary  propeller  shaft 
is  enclosed  in  an  iron  pipe,  and  is  rotated  by  means  of  a 
pulley  and  a  belt  from  an  engine.  A  section  of  this  pump 
is  shown  at  Ug.  10.>.  It  is  known  as  Shaw's  Compound 
Propeller  Pump,  and  is  manufactured  in  Philadcl])hia. 
The  method  of  its  operation  is  shown  at  fig.  106.  It  has 
the  advantage  that  it  can  lift  water  any  desired  hight  liy 
proper  adjustment.  Perhaps  no  pump  is  better  adai)ted 
to  extensive  irrigation  than  this. 

It  is,  however,  at  the  present  time,  the  smaller  pumps 
that  will  be  most  available  for  watering  crops  at  intervals 
when  rain  is  inadequately  supplied.     To  have  then  a  re- 


Fig.  107.— WHITMAN   A   BITRKEIX'S  STEAM  ENGIKE  AND  PUMl'. 

source  that  can  be  drawn  ujion  will  be  invalua])lc.  For 
such  purposes  smaller  pum{)s  are  made,  the  cost  of  whidi 
is  comparatively  trifling.  One  of  these,  intended  to  he 
operated  by  steam,  and  known  as  the  Faindiild  Steam 
Engine  and  Pump  combined,  is  manufactured  by  Messrs. 
Whitman  and  Burrell,  of  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  for  the  very 
moderate  cost  of  175.  Tiiis  pump  will  raise  30  gallons 
a  minute,  which  will  be  sufficient  to  cover  2  acres  of  land 


226 


IRRIGATION. 


an  inch  deep  every  day.  The  engine  is  of  2  horse-power, 
and  requires  a  boiler  of  equal  capacity.  The  whole,  com- 
plete, will  cost  but  little  over  $300,  a  sura,  which  con- 
sidering the  inexpensiveness  of  its  operation,  is  within 
the  profitable  employment  of  almost  every  market  garden- 
er, or  fruit  grower,  who  cultivates  10  to  13  acres.  This 
combined  pump  and  engine  is  shown  at  fig.  107. 

A  force  pump,  designed  for  house  and  farm  use,  but 
which  is  usefully  applicable  for  irrigation  of  gardens,  is 
shown  at  fig. 
108.  This  is  the 
"Blunt's  Uni- 
versal Force 
Pump,"  made 
by  the  Nason 
Manufacturing 
Co.,  of  Beek- 
man  St.,  New 
York.  A  care- 
ful examina- 
tion of  this 
pump,  as  to  its 
manner  of 
manufacture, 
and  effective- 
ness in  use  for 
the  purpose  of 
light  irrigation 
has  been  entirely  sufficient  to  show  its  very  great  value  as 
a  clieap  and  effective  pump.  Being  simple  in  structure, 
any  person  can  take  it  apart,  and  put  it  together  if  neces- 
sary ;  its  strength  gives  it  the  durability  needed  for  this 
work,  and  being  furnished  with  a  very  capacious  sand- 
strainer,  it  may  be  used  to  pump  river  or  other  water 
which  may  be  muddy,  or  have  sand  in  suspension,  with- 
out the  least  injury  to  the  interior  parts.     Not  the  least 


Fig.  lOS.— blunt's 

FORCE-PUMP. 


T"lg.  109.— BLTINT'S  8A»D- 
CHAMBER. 


BESERVOIRS.  227 

of  its  value  is  that  it  may  be  put  to  this  use  while  it  fills 
the  place  of  a  house  or  baru  pump,  or  both.  It  may 
be  worked  by  hand,  or  attached  to  a  windmill  or  steam- 
engine.  It  has  attachments  for  pipes  or  hose  at  the 
spout,  or  these  may  be  made  beneath  the  surface.  The 
sand-strainer  (fig.  109)  may  be  attached  to  this  or  any 
other  pump.  While  there  are  a  great  variety  of  pumps 
that  may  be  turned  to  the  uses  of  the  irrigator,  yet  these 
undoubtedly  meet  all  the  requirements  of  those  who  may 
be  called  upon  to  use  them,  from  the  greatest  operator  to 
the  least. 

Reservoirs. — A  vast  amount  of  irrigation  has  been 
done,  and  may  be  done,  by  the  help  of  storage  reservoirs, 
in  which  the  raiufail  of  a  part  of  the  year  is  impounded 
for  use  daring  the  dry  season.  The  most  prominent 
examples  of  these  storage  reservoirs  are  in  India,  where 
ancient  works  exist,  which  surpass  in  immensity,  and 
solidity  of  construction,  what  are  usually  considered  as  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  The  people  of  Indin,  ::)')  millions 
of  which  depend  for  their  existence  upon  the  water  sup- 
plied by  these  reservoirs  for  the  irrigation  of  their  land, 
have  taken  advantage  of  every  valley,  ravine,  or  nook, 
large  and  small,  and  have  converted  them  into  storage 
reservoirs,  by  throwing  across  them  banks  of  earth,  in 
which  the  water  supply  is  husbanded,  so  that  none  may 
run  to  waste.  In  fourteen  districts  of  the  Madras  Presi- 
dency alone,  no  less  than  43,000  irrigation  reservoirs  are 
recorded  by  the  Indian  Government  as  being  in  effective 
operation,  while  at  least  10,000  have  fallen  into  disuse. 
The  average  length  of  the  em])ankmcnts  is  half  a  mile  ; 
one  of  them,  now  no  longer  in  use,  extending  ff)r  30 
miles,  and  enclosincr  a  spacn  of  80  square  mile^,  or  over 
50,000  acres.  The  second  lanrest,  wliifli  is  still  in  use, 
has  an  area  of  35  square  miles,  and  a  dam  I'-i  miles  in 
length.  Curious  statisticians  have  calculated  that  Mieso 
Indian  embankments  contain  altogether  as  much  earth  aa 


228  IRRIGATION-. 

would  serve  to  encircle  the  whole  earth  with  a  belt  6  feet 
in  hight  and  thickness.  One  embankment  of  solid 
masonry,  strongly  cemented  together  and  covered  with 
earth,  exists  in  Ceylon,  which  is  15  miles  long,  100  feet 
wide  at  the  base,  siojics  to  a  top  width  of  40  feet,  and 
extends  across  the  foot  of  a  spacious  valley.  In  Europe 
there  are  many  reservoirs  for  irrigation.  In  Spain  there 
are  a  large  number ;  Italy  has  most  of  any  European 
country  ;  in  France  there  are  many  of  considerable  extent, 
one  contains  500,000  cubic  yards,  another  4,000,000  yards, 
and  hundreds  contain  from  20  up  to  50,000  cubic  yards. 
In  our  own  country,  where  we  have  seen  a  railroad  system 
so  vastly  and  successfully  extended,  it  cannot  be  doubted, 
that  at  some  time  not  far  in  the  future,  equally  costly 
and  valuable  works  may  be  constructed,  having  for  their 
object  the  reclamation  of  fertile  soils  from  aridity  by 
bringing  to  them  a  supply  of  water  which  now  flows 
away  uselessly.  By  impounding  the  winter  rainfall  of 
thousands  of  valleys,  or  the  melting  snow  from  thousands 
of  hills,  floods  may  be  prevented  and  a  store  of  water  be 
accumulated  for  use  in  the  rainless  season,  which  may 
bring  into  productiveness  millions  of  acres  of  now  waste 
lands.  The  manner  of  making  these  storage  reservoirs 
is  to  throw  across  the  outlet  of  a  valley  or  of  a  series  of 
valleys  connected  together,  a  dam  of  sufficient  hight  and 
strength,  furnished  with  outlet  pipes,  which  discharge, 
either  constantly  or  intermittently,  into  a  canal.  The 
proper  construction  of  the  dam  has  been  already  treated 
of  ;  it  will  now  only  be  necessary  to  consider  some  im- 
portant and  pertinent  characteristics  of  the  valleys  them- 
selves. 

At  fig.  110  is  shown  a  system  of  valleys,  which  have 
but  one  outlet  at  the  narrow  neck  where  the  dam  is 
thrown  across.  This  is  a  typical  example  of  a  most 
favorable  opportunity  for  constructing  an  irrigation  reser- 
voir.    In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  more 


DRAIXIXG   A   VALLEY.  299 

than  one  dam  ;  some  subordinate  ones  may  be  required 
to  prevent  overflow  at  lateral  points.  This  will  be  dis- 
covered when  the  contour  lines  of  the  level  of  the  valley 
are  run,  as  they  should  be  for  every  three  or  six  feet  of 


Fig.  110.— A  VALLEY  RESERVOIR. 

elevation.  From  these  contour  lines  the  capacity  of  the 
reservoir  may  be  calculated  for  each  level.  In  the  case 
here  illustrated,  it  will  be  observed  tliat  two  valleys  run 
together,  and  meet  where  two  spurs  of  higli  land  ajiproach 
near  each  other.  This  combination  of  favoring  circum- 
stances frequently  occurs  in  mountain  regions,  or  among 
the  lateral  si)urs  und  fDot  hills  <»f  higher  ranges.  In  ilio 
mountain  ranges  and  hills  which  lie  within  our  territory 


230 


IRRIGATION". 


most  subject  to  aridity,  opportunities  occur  for  construct- 
ing such  reservoirs  on  the  grandest  scale,  at  the  most 
moderate  cost.  Deep,  narrow  caiious,  which  open  out 
into  extensive,  and  sometimes  vast  valleys,  now  of  little 
use,  for  want  of  soil  and  on  account  of  their  rocky  sur- 
face, might  be  easily  and  cheaply  closed,  and  thus  a  res- 
ervoir of  great  magnitude  might  be  made.     The  normal 


Fig.  111. — VAXLET   IN   INCl-INED    STRATA. 

flow  of  the  issuing  stream  might  thus  be  regularly  main- 
tained, and  destructive  torrents  from  "cloud  bursts," 
and  rapidly  melting  snow  banks,  might  be  prevented. 
But  before  any  expenditure  is  made  in  such  operations, 
the  geological  character  of  the  valley  should  be  examined, 
lest  from  unfavorable  conditions  failure  might  ensue. 
This  will  clearly  appear  by  a  glance  at  the  three  annexed 
illustrations.  At  fig.  Ill  is  shown  a  section  of  what  is 
known  as  a  valley  of  erosion,  situated  in  an  inclined 
formation.  It  is  apparent,  that  if  such  a  valley  be 
dammed,  the  water  might  escape  through  any  one  of  the 
strata  on  the  lower  side,  that  might  happen  to  be  porous. 
In  this  case  failure  might  be  expected. 

At  figure  113  is  shown  a  section  of  a  valley  occupying 
an  anticlinal  axis.  It  is  equally  apparent  here,  that  the 
escape  of  the  impounded  water  might  be  looked  for,  and 
that  upon  both  sides  if  any  of  these  strata  be  porous. 
Failure  would  be  certain  in  this  case  also. 


THE    WASTE-WAT. 


231 


At  fig.  113  is  seen  a  section  of  a  valley  occupying  a  syn- 
clinal axis.  It  is  apjiarent  that  a  reservoir  formed  in  such 
a  valley  could  not  leak  by  any  possibility,  even  though  all 


Fig.  112. — AN  ANTICLINAL  VALLEY. 

the  strata  were  porous.  In  addition  to  this,  a  valley  of 
this  character  will  almost  always  have  abundant  springs 
issuing  from  its  flanks,  while  the  previous  one  can  have 
none  at  all,  and  the  first  mentioned  can  have  them  on  but 


-  ^z r^ '  ^^~ 

Fig.  113.— A  SYNCLINAL  VALLEY. 

one  of  its  sides,  and  what  maybe  gained  in  this  way,  may 
be  more  than  lost  in  another. 

The  surplus  overflow  from  a  reservoir,  should  be 
made  to  discharge  at  a  point  away  from  the  dam,  as 
shown  at  ^,  in  fig.  110.  This  is  necessary  or  at  least 
advisable,  as  the  dam  may  be  damaged  by  the  overflow  ; 
or  lest  to  provide  the  requisite  strengthening  to  resist 
erosion,  the  cost  may  be  augmented  unnecessarily.  A 
waste-way  may  be  formed  in  a  depression  in  the  edge  of 
the  basin,  either  by  excavaticm,  if  it  is  already  t(»o  high, 
or  by  masonry  if  tlie  existing  dejjression  is  too  low.  In 
case  of  rupture  from  any  cause,  the  main  work  will  re- 
main intact.  In  addition  to  the  wasfc-sluici'.  the  iipjicn- 
dages  of  a  reservoir  consist  of   the  apparatus  for  the  dis- 


232 


IRBIGATION. 


charge  of  the  water,  which  include  the  pipes,  the  valve 
tower,  and  the  culvert.     For  convenience  and  safety,  in 


.   114. — DAM    WITH   CULVERT   AND   TOWEK. 

case  of  the  giving  way  of  a  joint  in  the  discharge  pipe, 
this  should  be  carried  out  through  a  culvert  of  masonry, 
of  sufficient  size  to  admit  a  man.  This  culvert  com- 
municates Avith  the  valve  tower  as  shown  in  fig,  114.  The 

valve  is  a  circular  plate,  which 
slides  betvreen  two  flanges 
within  the  pipe,  the  surfaces 
which  come  into  contact  be- 
ing ground  to  fit  accurately 
together.  This  is  raised  by 
means  of  a  screw  attached  to 
a  rod  having  a  horizontal 
wheel  for  turning  it  at  the 
top.  A  form  of  valve  frequent- 
ly used  is  shown  at  fig.  115, 
the  section  of  pipe  contain- 
ing the  valve  being  bolted  by 
the  flanges  to  the  discharge 
pipe.  A  valve,  in  common 
use  in  Italian  and  French  ir- 
rigating works,  is  shown  in 
section  at  fig.  116.  This,  A, 
may  be  made  of  wood,  shod 
at  the  foot  with  a  plate  of  cast  iron,  ground  to  fit  an- 
other similar  plate  attached  to  the  opening  of  the  pipe,  E. 
It  is  raised  by  the  rod,  B,  keyed  to  the  upper  part,  and  is 
guided  by  means  of  eyed  wings,  D,  D,  which  work  up 
and  down  upon  the  rods,  C,  C. 


-DISCHARGING   PIPE 
VAl.VE. 


DISCHARGE   FROM   RESERVOIRS. 


233 


The  higlit  of  the  dam  above  the  crest  of  the  waste- 
weir  should  differ  for  different  deptlis  of  the  reservoir. 
When  the  dam  is  25  feet  high,  the  waste-weir  slioukl  be 
4  feet  lower,  and  for  every  25  feet  of  additional  hight  of 
dam,  the  difference  should  be  increased  one  foot.  The 
size  of  the  waste-weir  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
quantity  of  overflow  to  be  carried  off.  This  is  a  matter 
for  calculation  of  the  amount  of  rainfall  and  the  extent 
of  the  area  supplpng  the  reservoir.  It  would  always  be 
safe  to  form  a  temporary  dam  of  flash  boards,  or  earth, 


B 


? 


w 


Fig.  116.— DISCHARGING  PLUNGER  VALVE. 

upon  the  top  of  the  waste-weir,  which  would  raise  the 
surface  of  the  water  to  the  extreme  limit  of  safety,  when, 
if  this  were  overflowed,  it  would  bo  carried  away,  and  the 
safe  level  quickly  restored.  This  is  a  common  practice  in 
India,  where  a  large  waste-weir  is  essentially  necessary, 
on  account  of  the  sudden  torrents  of  rain  which  fall  at 
certain  seasons,  and  where  the  necessity  f<»r  savin::  every 
gallon  of  water  is  paramount.  In  this  way  (he  safety  of 
the  works  is  secured  against  sudden  and  unex|)ectcd 
accident.  But  this  possibility  of  ])rovi(ling  for  an  eventu- 
ality, which  brings  danger  with  it,  in  this  manner,  should 


S34  IRRIGATION'. 

not  lead  to  the  neglect  of  carefully  gauging  the  excess 
of  water  to  be  carried  off,  at  times  when  but  little  is 
used  in  irrigation,  and  of  providing  ample  accommoda- 
tion for  it. 

Reservoirs  of  smaller  size,  for  use  to  a  limited  exteut, 
or  for  farms  and  gardens,  may  be  made  in  a  much  more 
modest   manner.     Where  the  surface  of   the  ground  is 


Fig.  117. — RESERVOIIi   ON   LEVEL   GROUND. 

level,  the  reservoir  may  be  made  by  digging  out  the  bot- 
tom, and  forming  the  banks  of  the  excavated  earth,  as 
shown  at  fig.  117.  A  reservoir  upon  sloping  ground  may 
be  made  by  throwing  to  one  side  earth  excavated  from 
the  bottom,  and  forming  the  bank,  as  shown  at  fig.  118. 
A  reservoir  in  a  natural  hollow  may  be  made,  by  excavat- 
ing the  bottom,  and  using  the  earth  to  raise  the  sides,  as 


Fig.  118. — KESERVOIR  ON   SLOPING  GROUND. 

shown  at  fig.  119.  In  these  examples,  the  original  out- 
line is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  the  finished  work 
by  the  sliaded  portion.  The  scope  for  the  use  of  such 
small  reservoirs  as  these,  by  farmers  or  gardeners,  is  in 
reality  very  extensive. 

It  is  a  question  of  profit  solely.  Will  it  pay  for  the 
farmer  or  gardener  to  be  master  of  his  operations  ?  Will 
the  cost  of  reservoirs,  and  of  the  necessary  preparation 
of  the  surface  of  the  farm,  to  make  the  application  of 
the  reserved  water  possible,  overbear  the  value  of  the 
crops  raised  ?  With  our  present  defective  agriculture,  and 
our  consequently  unprofitable  crops,  the  necessary  cost 


ARTESIAN    WELLS,  235 

may  in  many  cases  prohibit  the  improvement.  But  it 
cannot  always  thus  remain.  The  exigencies  of  a  rapidly 
increasing  population  will  sooner  or  later  compel  a  differ- 
ent system  of  agriculture  ;  there  must  be  more  enterprise, 
a  greater  employment  of  capital,  new  methods  of  pro- 
ducing food,  and  compelling  the  soil  to  yield  its  maximum 
crops.  One  of  the  improvements  will  surely  take  the 
shape  of  equalizing  the  supply  of  water.  There  is  an 
extensive  scope  for  profitably  doing  this  now,  if  we  will 


Fig.  119. — ^BESEBVOIB  IN  A  HOLLOW. 

only  make  the  most  of  what  opportunities  we  have. 
There  are  numberless  farms  through  which,  every  Spring, 
a  flood  of  water  pours  from  the  ground  upon  a  higher 
level.  Xumberless  streams  are  torrents  in  Spring  and  dry 
gullies  in  the  Summer  and  Fall.  By  individual  or  associ- 
ated effort,  reservoirs  more  or  less  capacious,  might  be 
made  to  catch  all  this  useless  or  injurious  water,  and 
make  it  serve  a  useful  purpose. 

Artesian  Wells. — The  operation  of  an  artesian  well 
may  be  explained  by  the  illustration,  fig.  1"^0.  In  this 
is  shown  a  basin-shaped  deposit  of  various  strata,  either 
of  rock  or  of  clay,  gravel  or  sand,  resting  one  up<m 
another.  One  of  these  strata  consists  of  porous  material, 
lying  between  two  impervious  strata ;  it  may  be  that  the 
one  consists  of  sand  or  gravel,  lying  between  two  beds  of 
clay,  or  it  may  be  of  fissured  sandstone,  or  limestone, 
placed  between  two  beds  of  compact  rock.  At  the  outer 
edge  of  the  basin  these  strata  reach  tlie  surface.  The 
softer  materials  being  easily  worn  away,  may  form  valley!? 
through  which  streams  may  flow,  and  a  large  })(>rtion  of 
their  contents  may  escape  down  the  jiorous  bed  until  tho 
basin  is  filled.     In  some  cases,  when  streams  are  thus 


236  IBRIGATION. 

situated,  the  whole  body  of  water  sinks  out  of  sight,  and 
flows  in  an  underground  channel,  until  it  breaks  out  in 
copious  springs  here  and  there,  or  in  a  body  at  one  place. 
This  happens  in  well  known  cases  in  the  limestone  regions 
of  Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Florida,  and  in  Texas, 
where  large  streams  thus  suddenly  disappear.  In  other 
cases  considerable  streams  or  lakes  pass  over  or  lie  upon 
such  porous  strata,  and  a  large  quantity  of  water  escapes 
from  them.  Let  it  be  supposed  that,  in  the  diagram 
given,  a  stream  or  lake  is  situated  at  the  point  a,  or 
otherwise  that  the  rainfall  of  the  locality  here  sinks  into 
the  ground  and  disappears.     The  water  passes  through 


Fig.  120.— PLAN  OF  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

the  porous  stratum,  shown  by  the  pebbled  shading,  (Z>),  un- 
til the  basin  is  filled.  Then  if  at  any  point  within  the  basin, 
c,  c,  a  well  be  bored  until  the  porous  waterbearing  stratum 
is  penetrated,  the  water  is  at  once  forced  to  the  surface 
by  the  pressure,  and  if  confined  in  a  pipe,  would  rise  un- 
til the  level  of  the  source  is  reached,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  line.     This  would  be  an  artesian  well. 

It  is  evident  that  a  combination  of  circumstances,  rare- 
ly existing,  must  be  found  to  furnish  a  source  of  water 
of  this  character  at  all,  and  tliat  there  must  be  an  abun- 
dant and  permanent  supply  to  furnish  wells  that  can 
yield  copiously  and  permanently.  If  there  is  only  an 
accumulated  store  of  rainfall  to  draw  upon,  there  is 
danger  that  it  may  soon  be  exhausted,  and  afterwards 


CAXALS.  237 

that  only  a  limited  supph-  can  be  expected.  If  the  source 
of  water  is  inexhaustible,  then  only  can  the  wells  be  made 
permanent.  Thus  a  few  wells  in  a  district,  may  perhaps 
yield  copiously  for  awhile  and  then  fail,  or  if  the  number 
be  added  to,  the  supply  of  water  may  be  inadequate  for 
all  of  them,  and  those  at  the  higher  part  of  the  basin 
will  cease  to  flow  the  first,  and  afterwards  the  remainder 
will  act  no  longer  than  the  snpi)ly  holds  out.  It  is  certain, 
therefore,  that  the  risk  of  expending  large  sums  of  money 
in  sinking  wells  of  this  kind,  will  be  very  great,  and  that 
as  the  number  in  any  locality  is  increased,  the  risk  of 
failure  increases,  i'urther,  the  expectation  of  a  perma- 
nent supply  is  seen  to  be  delusive,  excepting  under  a  nar- 
row range  of  circumstances.  For  these  reasons,  caution 
should  be  exercised  in  making  considerable  investments, 
and  founding  large  hopes  upon  the  basis  of  irrigating 
farms  by  the  means  of  artesian  wells.  More  especially 
should  caution  be  exercised  where  an  extensive  district  is 
to  be  made  dependent  upon  these  wells,  and  a  large 
number  of  them  are  to  be  sunk  in  contiguous  places. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

SUPPLY    CANALS    AND    THEIR    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  proper  location  of  the  main  supply  canals  of  an 
irrigation  system,  is  a  very  important  consideration. 
Upon  it  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  the  cost  of  the  works 
and  their  future  efficiency.  The  first  cost  of  a  canal  will 
depend,  as  a  matter  of  course,  upon  its  length,  as  well  as 
upon  its  manner  of  construction.  It  may  be,  in  some 
cases,  a  matter  of  little  moment  whether  the  course  of 
the  canal  be  in  a  straight  line  f)r  should  curve  with  the 
meanderings  of  the  level,  or  on  the  other  hand,  it   may 


238  IRRIGATION. 

be  a  very  important  one.  No  extensive  system  of  irriga- 
tion can  be  built  up  in  a  year,  or  a  few  years.  All  the 
great  works  in  existence  have  been  the  growths  of  length- 
ened periods,  and  have  been  altered,  or  improved  from 
time  to  time.  But  nevertheless,  the  construction  of  a 
system  of  irrigation  works  should  not  be  looked  upon  as 
a  temporary  ex2)edient,  that  may  serve  a  present  purpose, 
and  may  be  changed  as  need  may  arise  in  the  future. 
This  would  be  a  short-sighted  jjolicy,  and  one  that  would 
be  costly  in  the  end.  When  works  of  such  a  useful 
character  as  this  are  completed,  many  various  interests 
become  involved  in  their  stability,  and  to  change  their 
course  or  character,  might,  and  undoubtedly  would,  give 
rise  to  damage,  disputes,  and  conflicts.  The  location  of 
the  main  works  should,  therefore,  be  chosen  with  every 
regard  to  future  as  Avell  as  present  requirements.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  chief  consideration  should  be  to  select 
the  location  with  regard  to  the  most  copious  supply  of 
water,  and  the  largest  amount  of  territory  that  may  be 
served  by  it.  The  actual  supply  of  water  should  be  ascer- 
tained with  great  care  and  exactness,  lest  costly  works 
may  be  constructed,  and  afterwards  found  to  be  in- 
adequately provided  with  water.  There  are  not  wanting 
cases  amongst  our  new  works,  in  which  this  unfortunate 
dilemma  seems  to  be  inevitable.  The  fall  in  the  course 
of  the  canal  determines  at  least  two  things  ;  one,  the 
amount  of  water  which  may  be  passed  through  it,  and 
the  other,  the  stability  of  the  banks,  or  the  resistance  to 
the  wearing  action  of  the  current. 

The  fall  sliould  not  he  more  than  one  foot  in  a  thousand, 
except  there  are  the  best  reasons  for  departing  from  these 
limits.  This  will  give  a  current  of  2  feet  per  second,  or 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  an  hour.  Half  of  this  fall,  or 
2'  I,  feet  to  the  mile,  may  be  taken  as  the  standard  for 
average  circumstances.  This  will  give  a  flow  of  about 
one  mile  per  hour. 


THEIR   LOCATION.  239 

The  fall  should  be  regular  from  beginning  to  end,  else 
the  current  will  be  more  rapid  in  places  where  the  fall  is 
increased,  and  this  will  cause  the  washing  of  the  banks 
in  the  steeper  j)arts,  and  the  deposition  of  the  detritus  in 
places  where  the  current  slackens.  This,  in  time,  will 
either  destroy  the  canal  or  render  costly  repairs  necessary. 
It  may  be  a  question  whether  it  is  better  to  follow  a  lung 
curve  around  a  hollow,  or  to  carry  the  canal  in  a  flume  or 
aqueduct  directly  across  it.  This  question  may  be  decid- 
ed by  considering  the  cost  involved  in  both  plans,  and  the 
advantages  that  may  be  derived,  if  any,  from  adopting  the 
more  costly  of  the  two.  If  there  is  land  that  may  be 
conveniently  irrigated  by  following  the  longer  course,  that 
would  be  a  point  for  consideration.  But  it  should  be 
taken  into  account  that  a  secondary  canal  can  at  any  time 
be  made  to  supply  dependent  territory,  and  it  may  not  be 
advisable  to  carry  the  main  canal  to  it,  for  no  other  pur- 
pose than  to  supply  it. 

The  character  of  the  soil  in  which  the  bed  is  to  be 
made,  should  be  regarded  in  fixing  upon  the  location. 
There  are  some  canals  in  existence  which  lose  40  per  cent 
of  their  water  by  filtration  through  the  subsoil.  It  is 
evident  that,  in  such  cases,  it  would  have  been  pnident 
at  least  to  have  been  sure  that  no  better  location  could 
have  been  selected. 

After  this  point  has  been  duly  settled,  the  methods  of 
construction  need  the  most  careful  stud}'.  It  will  bo  a 
wise  precaution,  that  may  hereafter  turn  out  to  be  u  great 
economy,  to  de])osit  all  the  excavated  earth  upon  one  side 
only  of  the  canal.  If  any  increase  in  its  size  should  ever 
afterwards  be  determined  iij)on,  it  can  be  enlarged  at 
greatly  less  cost  if  this  precaution  is  observed. 

The  same  principles  which  relate  to  the  construcliun  of 
the  larger  canals  are  also  involved  in  that  of  Ihe  second- 
ary and  distributary  ones.  The  following  remarks  will 
therefore  ai)p]y  to  irrigating  canals  of  every  description, 


240  IRBIGATION. 

and  to  a  great  extent,  to  the  furrows  ;  excepting  those  of 
the  most  temporary  character.  It  may  be  that  some 
repetition  of  j)revious  statements  may  be  made,  but  as 
they  will  be  found  pertinent  to  the  matter  in  hand,  no 
apology  may  be  needed  for  that. 

In  the  construction  of  canals  of  whatever  description, 
so  long  as  their  bed  and  banks  are  of  earth,  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  bed,  the  size  of  the  channel,  its  form,  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil  through  which  it  is  carried,  are  of 
the  utmost  importance  ;  because  upon  these  depend  its 
capacity  for  dehverin^  water  ;  its  cost  of  construction  ; 
its  permanence  in  use;  and  the  prevention  of  loss  of 
water  by  filtration  through  its  banks  or  bed.  Upon  the 
inclination  of  the  bed  depends  the  velocity  of  the  current 
and  the  stability  of  the  banks.  It  is  necessary  to  limit 
the  velocity  of  the  stream  in  the  canal,  lest  the  banks 
should  be  degraded,  and  washed  down  into  the  bed. 
Water  flowing  at  tlie  rate  of  120  feet  per  minute,  which 
is  the  rate  of  flow  with  a  fall  of  one  foot  in  a  thousand, 
is  considered  the  limit  of  safety  in  the  most  consistent 
soils.  Water  flowing  at  half  this  speed  will  wash  the 
banks  of  a  canal  made  in  sand  and  fine  gravel,  but  it 
musb  not  be  forgotten  that  the  velocity  of  a  stream  is 
greatest  in  the  middle  of  the  surface,  and  least  at  the 
bottom  and  sides  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
earth.  Thus  the  flow  in  the  center  of  a  wide  stream 
being  at  the  rate  of  ten  feet  in  a  given  time,  will  be  only 
eight  feet  in  a  deep  canal,  and  six  feet  in  a  shallow  one. 

The  following  table  gives  the  different  and  the  mean 
velocity  of  streams  : 


!»  inchfs  per 

Vdocify  in  mchf^per 

Mean  vei 

',  the  suiface. 

second  at  the  bottom. 

4 

1. 

2.5 

8 

3.3 

5.6 

13 

6. 

9.0 

16 

9. 

12.6 

20 

12. 

16.0 

34 

15. 

19.5 

28 

18.4 

33.2 

32 

16. 

26.8 

SLOPES    OF    CANALS.  241 

The  slope  of  some  of  the  Largest  irrigating  canals  in 
Europe  is  from  13  to  200  feet  in  10,000.  The  slope  in 
the  canals  of  the  Tyrol  and  other  localities  in  the  Alps  is 
frequently  as  great  as  six  feet  to  the  thousand.  In  these 
cases  the  sides  of  the  canals  are  of  masonry  or  timber. 
The  rule  npon  which  the  average  fall  of  canals  is  indicated 
is  lis  follows,  viz, :  For 
a  bed  which  consists  of 
fine  mud,  16  feet  in 
100,000  ;  for  soft  cla}-, 
45  in  100,000;  for  sand, 

136     in    100,000;     for  Fig.  1^2^^-^ '.eep  cxnax.. 

gravel,  433   in  100,000, 

and  for  solid  clay,  570  in  100,000.  "With  greater  in- 
clinations than  tliese  there  is  a  probability  that  the  sub- 
stances of  which  the  bed  is  formed  will  be  taken  in  sus- 
pension and  transported  by  the  water. 

It  is  obvious  tliat  in  those  cases  in  which  the  fall  is  at 
the  minimum,  the  size  of  the  canal  must  be  enlarged 
proportionately  to  pass  a  required  amount  of  water.  The 
velocity  may  be  hastened  without  enlarging  the  size  in 
certain  cases.  For  instance,  it  is  a  rule  in  hydraulic 
engineering,  that  the  velocity  is  in  proportion  to  the  mean 


Fig.  122. — A    SUA_LI.USV    C.VN.VL. 

radius  or  diameter  of  the  canal,  other  things  being  ctjual. 
Thus  the  water  in  the  canal  deep  in  proportion  to  its 
width,  as  illustrated  in  fig.  121,  meets  with  less  rosistanco 
fnjni  the  surface  of  the  Ix'dand  sides,  (called  l)y  engineers 
the  '' wet  perimeter")  than  that  in  the  shallow  canal 
seen  in  tig.  122,  and  its  velocity  being  therefore  greater 
than  in  one  of  a  contrary  c'  aracter,  a  larger  quantity  of 
water  is  passed  through  it  in  a  ^aveu  tiniQi 


342  IRKIGATION. 

In  soils  that  do  not  admit  of  rapid  currents,  and  in 
cases  where  a  greater  fall  is  unavoidable,  it  is  customary 
to  construct  the  canal  in  sections,  joined  by  chutes  of 
stonework  or  timber.  The  water  passes  through  these 
chutes  with  great  velocity,  and  accomplishes  the  fall  with- 
out injury  to  the  canal. 

The  inclination  of  the  banks  depends  upon  the  con- 
sistency of  the  soil.  The  angles  of  repose,  or  the  slopes 
at  which  various  kinds  of  soil  will  cease  to  slide  down  a 
declivity,  are  as  follows  :  Wet  clay,  16  degrees  from  the 
horizontal ;  dry  clay,  45  degrees  ;  coarse  gravel,  40  de- 
grees ;  compact  earth,  50  degrees  ;  arable  loam  or  mucky 
earth,  28  degrees  ;  wet  sand,  22  degrees  ;  dry  sand,  38 
degrees  ;  fine  gravel,  40  degrees.  It  depends  upon  the 
position  of  the  canal  as  regards  the  surface  as  well  as 


^^. 


Fig.  123. — SLOPE  OF  "one  foot  in  one." 

upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  what  inclination  is  necessary 
to  be  given  to  the  banks.  When  the  canal  is  excavated 
wholly  beneath  the  surface,  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  or  a 
slope  having  one  foot  of  vertical  hight  to  one  of  horizontal 
base,  is  generally  chosen.  This  is  shown  in  fig.  123,  in 
which  the  dotted  lines  show  that  the  slope  is  the  diago- 
nal diameter  of  a  perfect  square,  and  therefore  one 
of  45  degrees,  or  of  *' one  foot  in  one."  When  the 
canal  is  deeply  excavated,  the  slope  should  be  broken 
by  a  narrower  bank,  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  water, 
shown  in  fig,  124,  and  the  upper  slope  above  the  bank 
should  be  increased.  The  width  of  the  bank  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  hight  of  the  upper  slope  ;  its  purpose 
is  to  prevent  earth  loosened  from  the  slope  falling  into 


FORMS    OF   CANALS. 


243 


the  canal.  In  carrying  a  canal  around  the  spur  of  a  hill, 
the  earth  excavated  should  be  made  to  increyse  the  width 
of  the  bank,  as  shown  in  fig.  125,  in  which  the  dotted 
line  marks  the  excavation  and  the  removed  earth.  The 
moved,  earth  will  adhere  more  closely  to  the  old  surface 


Fig.  124. — FORM   OF   A  DEEP  CANAL. 

if  that  is  loosened  with  the  pick,  so  as  to  secure  an  inter- 
mixture of  the  new  earth  with  the  old.  Where  the  hill- 
side is  of  loose  earth,  it  may  be  necessary  to  protect  it  by 
stonework,  laid  up  as  seen  in  fig.  126.  Where  a  curve  is 
made  upon  a  hillside,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 


Flgf.  125,— CANAL  AROUND  A  HILL. 

stream  impinges  upon  the  bank  at  every  point  of  (he  out- 
ward curve.  Sometimes,  therefore,  the  stone-work  will 
need  to  be  laid  up  upon  the  outer  side,  as  the  ])roj)er 
place  for  it  is  where  the  water  will  wear  the  most. 
Protection  of  iBome  kind  will  be  needed  at  those  jioints. 
This  may  be  given  by  driving  stakes  and  wall  ling 
brush  among  the  stakes,  with  the  buts  pointing  down 
etream,   or  by  increasing  the   slope   of    the   bunks   on 


244 


IRRIGATION. 


Fiff.  126. — PROTECTED   CANAL. 


the  outside  curve.     Sometimes  a  canal  needs  to  be  carried 
underground,  beneath  roads   or  buildings.      A  wooden 

bridge  may  be  made  as 
shown  in  fig.  127,  which, 
when  covered  with  earth, 
appears  as  at  fig.  128.  It 
consists  of  a  piece  of  round 
timber,  to  which  short 
planks  are  strongly  nailed 
by  one  of  their  ends.  The 
other  ends  are  spread  apart 
as  far  as  may  be  necessary 
to  give  sufficient  capacity  to  the  canal.  The  bridge  is  put 
together  in  the  canal,  and  when  it  is  finished  is  covered 
with  earth.  Its  triangular 
form  gives  it  great  strength. 
Where  the  soil  is  porous 
and  open  in  its  character,  con- 
siderable loss  of  water  often 
occurs  by  percolation.  This 
is  to  be  prevented  by  puddling 
the  bottom  and  sides  with 
clay  or  compact  earth.  The 
clay  is  deposited  upon  the  banks,  and  as  it  is  softened 
and  reduced  to  a  plastic  condition  by  the  action  of  the 
water,  it  is  carried  down  and  de- 
posited in  a  layer  upon  the  bot- 
tom of  the  canal.  Gravelly  and 
loamy  soils  may  be  made  water- 
tight by  puddling  the  moist  bot- 
tom. This  may  be  done  by  driv- 
ing a  flock  of  sheep  up  and  down 
the  canal  when  the  bottom  is  wet, 
or  drawing  logs  up  and  down  by 
horses.  When  a  canal  must  either 
cross  a  valley  or  be  carried  around  it,  it  will  often  be^ 


Fig.  127.— BRIDGE  FOR  CULVERT. 


Fig.   12S. — (X)MPLETED 
CULVERT. 


MEASCRIXG   CANALS.  245 

found  profitable  to  extend  its  length  around  the  curve. 
It  will  be  so  in  cases  where  the  soil  of  the  valley  can  be 
brought  under  irrigation,  and  where  it  is  compact  and 
capable  of  retaining  the  water.  Where  these  circum- 
stances are  not  present,  it  will  be  best  to  carry  the  water 
across  the  depression  by  a  wooden  channel,  supported  up- 
on timbers,  or  by  an  inverted  siphon  resting  upon  the 
surface  and  covered  with  a  bank  of  earth,  or  buried 
wholly  beneath  the  surface.  If  an  inverted  siphon  is 
used,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  confined  water 
exerts  considerable  pressure,  which  must  be  provided  for 
by  securely  strengthening  the  tube. 

The  capacity  of  the  canal  is  an  element  which  enters, 
in  an  important  degree,  into  the  calculation  as  to  its  con- 
struction. To  estimate  the  capacity  of  a  stream  of  water 
it  is  necessary  to  find  the  area  of  the  cross  section  of  the 
stream  in  feet,  and  to  multiply  this  by  the  velocity  in 
feet  per  second  or  minute.     This  should  be  reduced  one- 


Fig.  129. — PLAN  OF  MEASUKING  A  CROSS-SECTION. 

fifth,  to  allow  for  the  lesser  velocity  at  tlie  bottom  and  sides, 
before  explained.  The  result  is  the  cubic  feet  of  water 
passing  down  the  canal  or  river  in  the  time  indicated.  A 
cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  02' Impounds,  and  measures 
about  7'  I,  gallons.  To  find  the  cross  section  of  a  stream, 
the  figure  formed  by  the  surface  of  tlie  bed  and  that  of 
the  stream  is  taken  and  averaged,  or  reihiced  to  determiii-. 
ed  geometrical  outline.  Thus  a  stream  one  foot  deep  in 
the  center,  four  feet  wide  on  the  surface,  two  feet  at  tho 
bottom,  with  banks  slopinc:  at  an  angle  of  4r>  degrees, 
will  have  a  cross  section  of  three  feet.     1'iiis  result  is  ob- 


S46  IREIGATION-. 

tained  by  adding  the  width  of  tlie  surface  to  that  of  the 
bottom,  dividing  by  two,  and  multiplying  the  sum  by 
the  depth.  This  is  explained  by  fig.  139,  in  which  it  is 
seen  that  the  two  triangular  side  sections  of  the  area  of 
the  stream  are  equal  to  half  the  central  section.  If  the 
bottom  of  the  stream  came  to  a  point  and  had  no  width, 
then  the  two  halves  would  be  equal  to  a  square  with  a 
diameter  equal  to  half  the  width  of  the  surface.  The 
velocity  is  found  by  floating  a  cork  or  piece  of  light  wood 
upon  the  stream,  and  accurately  measuring  the  distance 
traveled  in  a  minute.  The  usual  estimate  of  the  water 
required  in  extensive,  continuous  irrigation,  is  one  cubic 
foot  or  7'|,  gallons  per  second  for  100  acres.  Other" 
estimates  double  the  quantity  of  water  required,  but  it  is 
found,  as  the  soil  becomes  saturated,  that  much  less 
moisture  is  required  to  supply  the  crops.  This  smaller 
estimate  may  thus  safely  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  cal- 
culation for  the  size  of  the  main  canals. 

In  calculating  the  capacity  of  the  canal,  or  rather  the 
amount  of  water  that  will  be  carried  through  it,  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  loss  by  filtration,  and  also  by 
evaporation.  The  total  loss  from  these  sometimes 
amounts  to  50  per  cent  of  the  water  entering  the  canal, 
during  a  flow  of  a  few  miles.  The  Platte  Water  Canal 
Company,  of  Denver,  loses  700  inches  of  water  out  of  a 
total  inflow  at  the  head  of  their  canal  of  1,700  inches. 
Both  filtration  and  evaporation  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum  by  giving  to  the  canal  the  form  shown  in  fig. 
121,  by  which  the  bed  is  narrowed,  and  the  surface  expos- 
ed to  the  atmosphere  is  decreased. 

The  measurement  of  the  water  supplied  should  be  ac- 
curate. Generally  this  is  done  by  means  of  a  gate  of  given 
dimensions,  fixed  in  a  sluice-way  accurately  constructed, 
which  is  graduated  so  that  it  may  be  raised  to  a  mark 
designating  the  quantity  of  water  passing  through  the 
opening.     The  quantity  issuing  is  regulated  by  the  heacj 


WATER   GATES 


247 


or  liight  of  tlie  water  above  the  opening,  as  npon  this 
depends  the  velocity  of  the  stream  escaping.  The  exact 
velocity  of  the  stream  issuing  under  a  certain  head  is  not 
ascertained  by  any  arbitrary  rule,  but  is  estimated  and 
agreed  upon  by  irrigators  as  a  matter  of  custom  and  con- 
venience. 

The  method  of  measurement  common  in  this  country, 
is  by  an  opening  of  so  many  square  inches  with  a  head  of 
three  inches  of  water  in  the  flume.  The  actual  quantity 
of  water  which  may  fliow  through  this  opening  depends 
upon  many  varying  circumstances,  such  as  the  size  of  the 
canal,  the  substance  of  which  the  flume  is  made,  the 
shape  of  the  flume,  its  position  with  regard  to  the  course 
of  the  main  current,  with  other  modifying  influences,  all 
of  which  may  cause  differences  in  the  quantities  delivered 
through  openings  of  the  same  size.  By  and  by,  when 
our  circumstances  require  it,  however,  some  more  precise 
method  to  arrive  at  the  exact  quantity  of  water  escaping 
through  the  orifice  will  undoubtedly  be  discovered. 

The  gates  for  the  passage  of  water  into  the  smaller 
canals  should  be   care-  "  ^    ■ 

fully  made.  Wooden 
sluices  are  destructible, 
and  can  scarcely  be  made 
close.  If  timber  sills, 
sideposts,  and  plank  are 
used,  they  should  be 
made  of  the  best  of  oak. 
A  cast-iron  plate  should 
be  laid  in  the  sill  for  the 
gate  to  close  up(jn,  and 
the  gate  should  be  shod 
with  a  cast-iron  siioe, 
beveled  and  planed  to  fit  Fig.  130.-sect.on  ok  oat.. 

tlie  planed  surface  of  the  plate.   Then-  will  (hen  be  no  li-ak- 
a"-e.     A  well  constructed  sluice-way  should  have  ii  cast- 


ht 


248 


IEIlIGATIOl»r. 


iron  plate  in  the  sill  and  a  cast-iron  shoe  upon  the  gate. 
A  common  mode  of  construction  is  as  follows  :  The  gate 
slides  in  side  quoins  ;  a  flat  bar  supports  an  upright  frame, 
in  which  a  toothed-wheel  is  fitted,  gearing  into  the  rack 
of  the  stem  of  the  gate.     By  turning  the  toothed-wheel 


Fig.  131. — A  LEVER-GATE. 

by  a  crank,  the  racked  stem  is  raised  or  lowered,  and  the 
gate  with  it.  At  fig.  130,  a  form  of  sluice  worked  by  a 
screw,  a,  passing  through  a  projecting  eye,  h,  in  the 
gate,  /,  and  a  revolving  nut,  c,  and  lever- wheel,  e,  in  the 
frame.  By  turning  the  lever-wheel  the  gate  is  raised. 
Another  form  is  shown  at  fig.  131.     The  gate  is  lifted  by 

an  arm  a,  which  works  on 
a  pivot,  and  catches  into  a 
rack  on  a  quadrant  h,  and 
is  there  held,  keeping  the 
gate  open  at  any  desired 
hight.  A  very  common 
wooden  stop  is  shown  at 
fig.  132.  This  is  suitable 
for  small  channels,  and  is 
made  of  two  boards  joined 
together,  but  separated  at  the  ends,  as  shown  at  a,  a.  In 
the  space  between  the  boards  a  sluice  board,  h,  is  passed, 
being  lifted  by  a  hand-hole,  and  kept  at  any  point  by  a 
■wedge,  c.  An  aperture  is  made  in  the  boards  of  a  size 
required,  the  lower  edge  being  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  channel. 


T 

-^CD^^ 

"1 

1 
1 

1 

5 

mill 

mill 

Fig,   132. — HAND-GATE. 


CROSSINCr  CA>TALS    OR   ROADS.  249 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  carry  one  channel  across 
another  at  the  same  level,  and  yet  keep  tliem  separate. 
This  is  done  by  constructing  a  pipe  of  plank,  see  fig. 
133,  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  siphon,  and  carrvinf^  it 
beneath  the  channel  to  be  crossed.  This  pipe  is  sunk 
in  the  channel  of  which  it  is  a  continuation.  At  the  en- 
trance to  the  pipe  a  well  or  basin,  c,  is  sunk  in  the  clian- 


Fig.   133. — MANNER  OF  CUOSSING  A  CANAL. 

nel,  in  which  matter  suspended  in  the  water  may  fall  and 
be  caught  so  that  it  may  not  obstruct  the  pipe.  In  the 
same  manner  a  canal  may  be  carried  beneath  a  road. 

In  forming  the  smaller  permanent  channels,  some  labor 
may  be  saved  by  taking  advantage  of  natural  depressions 
in  the  ground,  and  forming  the  channels  there,  using  the 
excavated  earth  for  filling  up  the  depression.  Thus  in 
the  case  illustrated  by  fig.  134,  the  earth  is  removed  from 
the  center  of  the  hollow,  and  placed  on  each  side, 
raising  the  sides,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  leav- 


Fig.   134.— OANAL  IN  A  HOLLOW. 

ing  tlic  canal  of  the  shape  indicated.  A  case  in  which 
a  canal  is  needed  upon  sloping  ground  is  shown  at  fig,  135. 
The  earth  excavated  is  ])lacod  as  before  on  cat'li  .^idr,  ;nul 
the  level  raised  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

The  distributing  furrows  u])ou  cnltivatcd  grounds  can- 
not be  permanent.  They  are  destroyed  al  every  plowing, 
and  must  Ijc  re-niad(!  for  every  croj).  I-'or  Hie  majority  of 
crops  that  arc  planted  in  hills  or  drills,  tliu  furrows  bo- 


SSO  iKRlGATtOy. 

tween  the  rows  will  serve  for  the  irrigation  of  the  crop. 
For  other  crops  that  are  sown  broadcast,  the  furrows  may 
be  made  by  rollers,  figs.  96  and  97,  which  press  the  ground 
into  regular  corrugations  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  sown,  and 
harrowed. 

It  may  be  well  to  notice  in  this  place  the  exaggerated 
and  erroneous  ideas  of  some  writers  upon  the  subject  of 
irrigation,  who  do  much  injury  by  misleading  public 
opinion  upon  some  vital  points.  For  instance  in  a  paper 
upon  this  su1)ject,  published  in  the  Report  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  1871,  it  is  declared,  "  that  with 
very  few  exceptions,  every  foot  of  land  lying  in  Colorado 
and  Kansas,  between  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Kansas  City  on  the 
Missouri    river,  is    sus-    ^^:;^... 

ceptible    of   irrigation."       ^^^>^  , 

It  is  true  that  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of   irrigation   if 
the  necessary  water  can       j,jg_  i35._c.,^^^  on  a  hu^l-side. 
be   found    by   this    too 

sanguine  and  mis-informed  writer.  But  the  water  is  not 
there,  and  in  fact  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  territory 
can  ever  be  brought  under  irrigation  with  the  existing  sup- 
ply. As  an  example,  the  Arkansas  valley  may  be  considered. 
The  nearest  crest  of  the  water-shed,  on  the  north  side  of 
this  river,  is  45  miles  distant ;  on  the  south  it  is  much 
more  distant.  If  we  calculate  a  territory  only  90  miles 
wide,  and  500  miles  long,  depending  upon  this  river,  it 
would  contain  28,800,000  acres,  recpiiring  at  one  cubic 
foot  per  second  per  100  acres,  288,000  cubic  feet  per 
second.  To  supply  this  there  would  be  required  a  river 
nearly  2  miles  wide  and  10  feet  deep,  flowing  2  miles  an 
hour,  with  no  allowance  for  loss  by  evaporation  and  per- 
colation. The  Arkansas  is  not  one-fifth  of  this  capacity, 
and  could  not  supply  one-tenth  of  the  territory.  "What 
then  becomes  of  the  rest  of  the  territory  which  is  without 


INCOREKCT  IDEAS.  2r)l 

any  great  river  to  supply  it  ?  The  absurdity  of  the  above 
assertion  is  manifest. 

Again,  this  seems  a  proper  place  to  refer  to  the  erro- 
neous figuring,  noticed  on  page  172,  in  regard  to  the 
canals  in  California.  A  canal  55  feet  wide,  upon  the  sur- 
face, (and  averaging  only  50  feet  in  width),  i  feet  deep, 
and  flowing  2  miles  an  hour,  can  only  supply  GOO  cubic 
feet  per  second,  or  enough  to  give  one  cubic  foot  per  100 
acres  to  60,000  acres,  or  half  a  cubic  foot,  per  100  acres, 
to  120,000  acres  ;  instead  of  supplying  325,000  acres — tlic 
capacity  claimed  for  it.  But  25  per  cent  of  the  supply 
may  easily  be  lost  on  the  route,  and  this  would  serve  to 
still  further  reduce  the  number  of  acres  served.  It  is 
yery  important  that  these  calculations  should  be  made 
with  exactness,  or  some  very  costly  mistakes  may  be  made, 
which  mav  very  reasonably  tend  to  disgust  persons  who 
are  not  well  informed,  as  to  the  actual  cost  and  merits  uf 
irrigation. 

The  manner  of  construction  of  lesser  canals,  for  dis- 
tributing the  water,  should  be  consistent  in  all  respects 
with  the  conditions  and  requirements  here  pointed  out ; 
there  is  probably  no  necessity  to  enter  into  details  which 
might  be  tedious,  and  would  necessarily  be  a  repetition, 
to  some  extent,  of  what  has  been  described  heretofore. 

One  point,  however,  must  not  l)e  omitted  ;  that  is  the 
connections  of  the  earth  works  with  flumes,  gate  frames, 
sluices  and  boxes  for  the  proper  conducting  of  tiie  water 
into  devious  courses.  It  is  a  known  property  of  water 
that  it  is  very  much  inclined  to  ''creep"  along  the  sur- 
face of  any  pipe,  arch,  culvert  or  sluice,  whether  of  iron, 
brick,  masonry,  or  wood,  which  is  imbedded  in  earth 
work.  The  connections  should,  thercfort',  l)e  made  with 
great  care.  As  a  rule,  tlie  walls  of  gateways,  or  shiices, 
should  be  protected  with  flanking  walls  of  the  game 
material  of  whicli  tlie  main  works  are  conHtruct<'<l.  or 
ftlsc  should  be  protected  by  piles  driveu  lirmly  into  tho 


252  IRRIGATION-. 

bed  and  braced  or  anchored  into  tbe  bank  with  timber 
stays  ;  and  the  water  surface  of  the  piling  should  be 
planked.  For  small  works,  piles  and  wattling  of  brush 
may  serve  a  very  good  purpose  to  prevent  erosion  and 
undermining.  But  in  whatever  way  it  may  be  done, 
some  protection  against  the  wearing  effect  of  currents  or 
eddies,  or  the  penetration  of  water  into  the  work  should 
be  provided,  wherever  the  course  of  the  water  is  changed, 
and  a  stream  is  divided  or  diverted. 

For  smaller  ditches  or  canals,  such  as  those  of  six  feet 
in  width  or  less,  a  grade  of  one  foot  to  the  thousand  will 
be  found  hardly  sufficient.  Two  feet  to  the  thousand 
would  not  be  an  unsafe  inclination  for  such  channels,  and 
where  the  soil  is  firm  or  tenacious,  an  inclination  of  three 
feet  might  be  allowed.  The  narrower  the  canal  the 
greater  ratio  of  inclination  would  be  needed. 

Caution  should  be  exercised  to  frequently  observe  the 
condition  of  the  banks  of  secondary  canals,  when  the 
soil  of  which  they  are  made  is  not  of  a  very  consistent 
character,  and  where  the  water  is  confined  within  em- 
bankments. The  cutting  of  a  bank  of  earth  by  a  current 
of  water,  is  a  work  which  grows  rapidly  from  small  be- 
ginnings to  great  proportions,  and  a  break  in  a  bank  may 
be  the  work  of  a  yery  short  time,  if  a  little  wasting  is 
allowed  to  pass  unchecked.  The  damage  that  may  easily 
be  done  in  one  short  hour,  by  the  escape  of  the  water  of 
a  ditch  carrying  but  a  square  foot  and  a  half,  would  easily 
surprise  one  unused  to  such  efi'ects,  and  might  be  irrepar- 
able for  a  whole  season.  While  the  irrigator  is  greatly 
benefited  by  the  water  he  uses,  so  long  as  he  can  control 
it  in  his  service,  he  is  always  liable  to  be  damaged  if  he 
permits  his  servant  to  escape  control  and  become  his 
master.  This,  however,  can  on^'y  happen  by  inexcusable 
negligence  or  mistakes  arising  from  inexperience. 


SILTIXG    OF    LANDS.  253 

CHAPTER    XX. 

THE   APPLICATION  OF    WATER   TO   THE  IMPROVE^rENT   OF 

LANDS.— SILTING    OR    FERTILIZATION    OF    LANDS  BY 

FLOODING.-RECLAMATION  OF  SALT  MARSHES, 

RIVER  FLATS,  AND  SUBMERGED  LANDS 

The  methods  of  irrigation  described  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  have  for  their  object  the  supply  to  the  soil  of 
"water  sufficient  for  the  growth  of  various  crops,  either 
during  the  season  of  heat  and  drouth,  or  in  climates  in 
which  the  rainfall  is  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  vege- 
tation. But  there  are  methods  of  employing  water 
in  the  improvement,  reclamation,  or  indeed,  the  actual 
making  of  land,  that  belong  to  the  art  and  practice  of 
irrigation  which  claim  at  least  some  notice  in  this  work. 
It  is  very  probable  that  many  years  may  elapse  before  the 
gradual  growth  in  value  of  our  agricultural  lands  shall 
arrive  at  that  point,  which  will  make  it  desirable  to  make 
extensive  use  of  these  methods  of  improvement.  But 
there  are  many  cases  occurring,  in  which  the  owners  of 
lands  that  are  amenable  to  improvements  of  the  character 
here  referred  to,  are  either  putting  these  improvements 
into  operation,  or  are  anxiously  seeking  for  practicable 
plans  for  reclaiming  their  property.  It  would  be  well, 
however,  to  caution  the  owners  of  waste  lands  against 
unwisely  undertaking  large  expenditures  of  money,  be- 
fore they  have  consulted  some  competent  engineer  who 
is  practiced  in  this  special  business,  or  until  tliey  have 
felt  their  way  by  completing  some  portion  of  the  work 
in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

"  Siltinfj,"  or  fertiUzinf)  hi/  flood  in  f/  wifli  irutrr  ha  ring 
much  earth]!  mattpr  in  suspension,  is  the  first  of  these  in- 
direct methods  of  irrigation  to  be  treated  of.  This  prac- 
tice depends  for  its  effects  upon  the  presence  of  nwwh 
suspended  matter  in  the  water  used  j   u  large  supply  of 


254 


IREIGATION. 


■water ;  a  soil  that  is  destitute  of  fertility  in  its  present 
condition,  either  naturally,  or  as  the  result  of  damage 
by  washing  or  flooding,  and  that  is  so  situated  that  it 
can  be  covered  with  water  from  a  muddy  stream,  from 
which  the  load  of  suspended  matter  may  be  deposited 
diwing  a  period  of  rest.  After  this  has  been  done,  the 
clear  water  is  withdrawn  slowly,  so  that  the  newly  de- 
posited soil  is  not  disturbed,  and  a  new  supply  is  let  on. 

The  lands  that  may  be  thus  improved,  are  obviously 
only  those  in  river  bottoms,  or  in  bends  of  streams,  where 
damage  has  been  inflicted  by  the  washing  of  freshets,  and 
upon  which  water  from  the  stream  may  be  flowed  either 
by  damming,  or  by  the  high  water  of  floods,  and  upon 
which  the  water  may  be  retained  by  a  series  of  banks 
until  it  has  served  its  purpose,  when  it  may  be  withdrawn 
through  flood-gates  or  spouts  in  the  banks. 

After  the  surface  has  been  brought  to  a  level,  or  to  a 
smooth,  regular  and  not  excessive  slope,  in  one  direction, 
the  arrangements  for  retaining  the  water  should  be  made. 
A  succession  of  banks,  as  described  in  Chapter  XII,  pp. 


Fig.  136.— WASTE  GATE. 

126-127,  will  be  needed.  The  higher  the  banks,  and  the 
deeper  the  sheet  of  water  that  can  be  retained,  the  better; 
for  the  more  water  that  can  be  im^iounded.  the  greater 
the  burden  of  soil  that  wall  be  deposited.  The  discharge 
of  water  must  be  carefully  resrulated,  lest  the  deposit  be 
stirred  up  by  the  current,  and  carried  off  by  the  retreat- 
ing waters.  To  obviate  this  danger,  the  gates  should 
open  at  the  top,  and  not  at  the  bottom,     The  best  ar- 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    SALT-MAKSIIES.  255 

rangement  consists  of  a  flume  of  plank,  built  in  the  em- 
bankment, as  shown  at  fig.  13G,  in  which  tliree  or  four 
or  more  narrow  planks  are  made  to  fit  in  grooves.  Wlien 
the  water  has  become  clear,  and  is  ready  to  be  withdrawn, 
the  top  plank  is  raised  at  one  end,  or  is  removed  alto- 
gether, and  the  water  allowed  to  escape.  When  the  water 
has  reached  the  top  of  the  second  plank,  that  is  removed, 
and  so  on  until  the  ground  is  cleared. 

As  soon  as  a  deposit  has  been  made,  sufficient  to  bear 
a  growth  of  grass,  the  seed  may  be  sown  and  the  operation 
suspended.  It  may  be  repeated  again  when  the  herbage 
has  taken  root,  in  which  case  the  management  will  be 
precisely  the  same  as  that  of  a  water  meadow,  described 
in  Chapter  XII,  and  the  same  rules  that  are  there  given 
will  be  proper  for  its  treatment. 

TJie  reclamation  of  Salt  Marshes  is  a  work  of  draining, 
primarily  ;  and  would  be  out  of  place  here,  except  that 
the  following  work,  the  freshening  or  desalation  of  the 
soil,  which  is  a  process  of  irrigation,  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  it  that  the  one  becomes  a  part  of  the  other, 
and  can  only  be  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  it.  'V\\q. 
importance  of  the  reclamation  of  the  millions  of  acres  of 
salt  marshes  along  the  coasts,  is  so  highly  considered  by 
thoughtful  persons,  that  at  a  recent  meeting  of  a  scienti- 
fic society  at  Boston,  this  was  stated  to  be  one  of  the 
chief  means  of  the  recovery  of  the  agriculture  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  its  former  vigor  and  profitable  success. 

The  drainage  of  salt  marshes  consists  in  embanking 
them  from  the  tidal  flow,  in  draining  the  waters  fnm.  Die 
marsh  into  ditches,  from  which  the  escape  is  by  means 
of  sluices  with  giites  which  permit  the  outflown.g  water 
to  pass,  but  which  ch.se  themselves  againsi  a  iluw  from 
without.  A  gate  of  this  character  is  shown  at  figure  :>'.). 
As  soon  as  the  salt  water  has  been  diverted  from  the  land, 
the  work  is  but  begun  ;  for  tlic  soil,  saturated  with  salt, 
produces  no  herbage  but  coarse  sedges,  reeds,  or  other 


256  IRRIGATION. 

sea-side  plants.  Generally  there  is  an  abundance  of  fresh 
water  available  for  the  improvement  of  the  marsh,  but 
in  the  effort  to  keep  the  salt  water  out  this  is  kept  in, 
with  the  result  of  perpetuating  the  marsh,  notwithytaud- 
ing  its  drainage.  The  remedy  is  by  flooding  the  lanC 
systematically  and  as  copiously  as  possible  with  this  fresh 
water,  and  then  withdrawing  it ;  repeating  the  process 
until  the  salt  has  been  dissolve.!  and  carried  off. 

The  remedy  can  be  applied  in  two  Avays,  at  least.  The 
one  is,  in  case  a  stream  of  water  passes  through  or  by  the 
marsh,  when  the  fresh  water  is  diverted  by  a  dam  in  the 
stream  and  a  canal  or  ditch,  upon  the  salt  land,  where 
it  is  retained  for  a  time  and  then  discharged  through  the 
gate  at  low  tide.  Another  is,  by  closing  the  gates  and 
securing  them  so  as  to  retain  all  the  drainage  water  until 
the  ground  is  deeply  covered,  when  the  gates  are  opened 
and  the  water  discharged.  The  repetition  of  this  pro- 
cess will,  in  time,  remove  the  salt  from  the  soil  and  leave 
it  ready  for  the  plow,  and  the  profitable  cultivation  of 
crops.  To  carry  out  these  operations  effectively,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  apply  to  practice  any  of  the  methods, 
found  to  be  most  advisable,  that  are  explained  and  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  chapters  of  this  book.  It  is 
difficult  to  imagine  a  case,  in  which  it  would  be  impossible 
to  apply  some  of  the  plans  herein  described  for  the 
drainage  and  irrigation  of  meadows. 

The  Improvement  of  River  Flats,  that  are  partially  oi 
periodically  submerged,  is  another  of  the  direct  opera- 
tions of  irrigation.  The  object  of  this  improvement  is, 
to  reclaim  low  lying  banks  of  gravel,  sand,  or  mud,  eithei 
upon  the  sides  of  tidal  estuaries,  or  upon  streams  thai 
have  changed  their  course,  and  have  left  these  ruined 
spots  to  mark  the  ravages  made  by  former  freshets.  This 
process  of  reclamation  consists  in  forming  banks  or 
courses  of  piles  and  brush,  by  which  the  tidal  flow  or  the 
high  water  of  rivers  at  certain  seasons^  when  a  large  cj^uan- 


IMPROVEMENT   OP    RIVEK   FLATS.  267 

tity  of  suspended  matter  is  carried  down,  is  arrested  or 
retarded,  and  made  to  deposit  its  burden. 

When  land  is  to  be  thus  reclaimed,  the  first  thiuo:  to  be 
looked  to  is  the  nature  of  the  outfall  for  future  draina"-e, 
when  the  newly  made  ground  requires  to  be  dried  aud 
made  fit  for  cultivation  ;  the  second  is,  to  be  sure  that  the 
amount  of  solid  matter  carried  in  suspension  by  the 
stream,  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the  expectation  that  the 
process  will  be  completed  in  arcasunulMe  period  of  time,  and 
at  a  cost  that  will  not  surpass  the  i)robabie  future  value  of 
the  land.  When  these  points  are  decided  favorably,  the 
next  thing  is,  to  choose  the  method  by  which  the  work  may 
be  done ;  as  one  method  may  be  used,  by  which  eiuht  or 
twelve  years  may  be  required  to  do  the  work  which  may 
possibly  be  done  in  two  or  three  years,  by  another  metlKjd. 
Thus,  by  simply  retarding  the  flow  by  cross-lines  of 
stakes,  with  brush  wattled  between  them,  or  by  coarse 
basket  work  or  gabions  anchored  with  stone  and  deposited 
in  lines,  which  is  the  least  expensive  plan,  some  years  may 
elapse  before  the  ground  may  reach  the  hight  of  ordinary 
high  water,  and  become  solid  enough  to  sustain  an  em- 
bankment ;  when  by  throwing  up  banks  of  mud  upon 
foundations  of  piles  and  gabions  filled  with  earth  or 
gravel,  and  making  sluices  so  as  to  enclose  the  muddy 
water  and  retain  it  until  its  load  has  been  dropjwd,  when 
the  clear  water  could  flow  off,  a  depth  of  soil  of  from 
one  foot  up  to  four  or  five  feet  lias  been  gained  in  one 
year.  Generally  the  process  is  a  very  slow  one,  and  be- 
fore the  work  is  undertalvon  some  trustworthy  estimates 
should  be  procured,  as  to  the  cost  of  the  work,  and  the 
probable  length,  of  time  that  may  be  required  for  its  com- 
pletion. 

The  erratic  course  of  rivers  and  tlicir  fickle  bcliavior 
when  in  flood,  is  an  element  tiiat  deserves  close  study. 
Much  of  this  depends  upon  the  geological  character  oC 
the  banks,  as  well  as  upon  the  velocity  of  ilic  atroam. 


258 


IKRIGATION'. 


For  instance,  it  is  a  well  established  fact  that,  while 
coarse  gravel  resists  a  current  of  two  miles  per  hour,  fine 
gravel  is  moved  by  a  current  of  one  mile  per  hour  ;  ordi- 
nary sandy  soil  by  a  current  of  half  a  mile  per  hour,  and 
fine  mud  is  carried  away  by  a  current  that  is  almost  im- 
perceptible ;  so  that  the  abrading  action  of  flowing  water 
depends  upon  both  of  these  contingencies.  When  a 
stream,  flowing  with  sufficient  velocity,  meets  with  a  soft 
spot  in  the  bank,  it  soon  excavates  a  concave  outline 
forming  a  bend,  around  which  the  current  sweeps  and  is 
deflected  with  violence  against  the  opposite  bank.  Cut- 
ting away  then  begins  in  a  new  place,  and  a  second  bend 
is  formed  here.  The  eft'ect  is  continued,  the  banks  are 
hollowed  out  in  opposite  directions,  the  river,  deflected 
from  bank  to  bank  enlarges  the  bends  and  lengthens  its 
course.  But  as  the  course  is  lengthened,  the  fall  is  re- 
duced,  the  velocity  is   decreased,    and  the   destructive 

stream  becomes  a  placid, 
gentle,  harmless  current ; 
incapable  of  inflicting  fur- 
ther injury  upon  its  banks. 
Besides,  in  time  of  floods, 
the  broad  stretches  be- 
tween the  bends  are  swept 
over  by  tlie  spreading 
stream,and  the  wide  course 
permits  the  waters  to  es- 
cape with  rapidity,  and 
without  dangerous  veloci- 
Fig.  137.— PLAN  OF  A  CUT-OFF.  ^y.  Whcu,  thcref  orc,  it  is 
determined  to  reclaim  one  of  uiese  broad  stretches,  over 
which  the  water  flows,  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is 
an  effort  to  return  to  the  former  conditions  when  the 
river  was  an  active  and  destructive  agent.  The  work, 
therefore,  requires  to  be  done  with  care,  caution,  and 
skill  J  lest  a  new  course  of  destructive  action  be  caused. 


CUT-OFF    FOR    A    BEND. 


259 


whicli  may  seriously  injure  the  banks  below,  and  totally 
upset  the  slowly  acquired  stability  of  the  stream.  An 
illustration  of  the  channel  of  a  river,  that  has  established 
a  winding  course,  and  has  formed  bends  or  flats  that  may 
be  brought  under  improvement,  is  given  in  fig.  137.  This 


Fig.  138.— SECTION   OF  CUT-OFF. 

may  be  either  a  tidal  river,  or  otherwise.  The  course  of 
reclamation  of  the  extensive  tongue  of  land,  surrounded 
by  the  bend,  will  be  the  same  in  either  case.  Here  is  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  a  cut  across  the  narrow  neck, 
as  shown.  The  cross  section  of  the  cut,  with  its  embank- 
ments, is  shown  at  fig.  138.  By  this  cut  the  current  is 
divertetl  from  the  bend,  which  at  times  of  flood  may  be 
covered  with  muddy  water,  and  gradually  silted  up.  Two 
gates  are  made  in  the  right  bank  of  the  stream,  as  shown 


Fig    139. — MODE  OF   PROTECTING   THE  BANK. 

at  a,  b,  fig.  137.     The  in-flow  gate  is  at  a,  and  the  out- 
flow at  h. 

The  banks  of  the  cut  should  be  protected  from  the 
abrading  action  of  the  increased  velocity  due  to  tiic  greater 
fall,  by  means  of  rubble  stone,  retained  in  place  by 
piling  and  i)lanking,  or  by  the  piling  alone.  Bundles  of 
brush  may  l)e  used  in  i)lace  of  stone,  and  covered  with 
earth,  as  shown  at  fig.  139.  Nothing  tends  more  to  the 
pormanence  of  a  river's  banks,  than  a  smooth  surfaeo 
upon  Avhich  the  water  can  find  no  irregularities  to  beat 


260  IBKIGATION. 

against,  but  from  wliicli  it  glides  gently.  In  forming  the 
protecting  banks,  it  is  best  to  place  them  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  bed  of  the  river,  as  to  leave  a  solid  fore-shore. 
No  angles  or  bends  should  be  made,  but  the  lines  should 
either  be  straight,  or  in  easy  curves.  The  materials  sliould 
be  such  as  will  bind  firmly  together ;  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  sand  being  the  best.  Combinations  of  masonry  and 
earth- work  should  never  be  used,  as  no  proper  bond  or 
union  can  be  formed  between  them. 

The  surfaces  of  the  banks  should  be  covered  with 
grass  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  no  trees  should  be  plant-, 
ed  upon  artificial  embankments.  If  water  passes  beneath 
an  embankment,  a  trench  should  be  sunk,  and  filled  with 
clay  puddle.  When  one  side  of  a  river  is  protected,  the 
other  side  is  greatly  endangered,  unless  equally  guarded, 
and  the  protecting  works  should  therefore  be  made  upon 
each  side. 

Where  the  formation  of  a  new  cut  is  not  possible,  as 
upon  banks  in  tidal  rivers,  or  in  streams  only  one  bank  of 
which  is  owned,  or  in  estuaries,  the  method  of  staking  or 
piling,  should  be  adopted.  This  consists  in  driving  piles 
or  stakes,  in  double  or  single  rows,  across  the  tract  to  be 
reclaimed;  or  in  dividing  it  into  sections  by  cross  lines  of 
stakes  or  piles  with  brush  interwoven,  or  by  maki'jg  de- 
posits of  stone  along  the  lines  of  stakes.  By  these 
methods  the  current  is  retarded,  eddies  are  formed,  and 
the  water  is  rendered  stagnant  ;  in  either  case,  any 
suspended  matter  is  dropped  within  the  lines  of  the  ob- 
structions. As  the  surface  rises,  additional  stakes  are 
driven  and  more  Inrush  is  placed  between  them,  and 
weighted  down  with  stones,  until  the  level  is  raised 
sufficiently  to  warrant  the  exclusion  of  the  water  by  more 
solid  structures.  Runs  or  water-ways,  by  which  the  re- 
ceding water  escapes,  whether  it  be  the  tidal  flow  or  the 
water  of  rivers,  are  to  be  filled  by  running  lines  of  stakes 
across  them,  and  filling  between  them  with  brush  or 


COST   OF  THE   RECLAMATI05T.  261 

stone.  These  eioss  lines  should  be  made  lower  in  the 
center  than  at  the  ends,  lest  the  Avater  should  escape 
around  either  or  both  ends,  and  form  new  channels. 
When  deep  gullies  have  been  formed,  a  diiferent  course 
must  be  pursued,  viz. :  to  throw  into  the  deepest  part 
coarse  basket  work,  gabions,  or  bundles  of  brush,  which 
are  loaded  with  stones,  until  the  bottom  is  gradually 
raised ;  when  it  will  become  possible  to  use  the  stakes 
and  brush.  When  the  level  of  the  made  ground  reaches 
the  usual  high  water  mark,  it  is  ready  to  be  enclosed 
between  banks,  and  rarely  before  this  poiut  is  reached. 
The  course  to  be  followed  is  then  such  as  has  been  already 
described  in  this  chapter. 

The  surface  having  appeared  above  water,  and  having 
been  embanked  and  freshened,  as  previously  described,  it 
is  prepared  for  cultivation  by  being  sown  to  grass  as  a 
preliminary  proceeding  ;  for  this  may  be  grown  long  be- 
fore any  other  cultivated  crop  can  succeed.  Perha})s  as 
meadow  and  pasture  land  it  will  be  found  more  profitable 
than  in  any  other  condition,  because  of  tlie  ease  with 
which  it  may  be  brought  under  irrigation,  and  kept  as  a 
water  meadow  ;  for  there  are  scarcely  any  lands  better 
situated  for  this  purpose,  or  that  can  be  more  cheaply  and 
profitably  managed  in  tliis  way,  than  such  lands  as  are 
here  under  consideration. 

The  cost  of  sucli  a  process  of  reclamation,  as  is  describ- 
ed in  this  chapter,  will  of  CDurse  depend  considerably 
upon  the  size  of  the  tract  operated  upon  ;  the  more  or  less 
favorable  circnm.stances  attending  the  o])eration  ;  and  the 
skill  with  whicli  the  works  are  managed.  The  most 
reasonable  estimate,  when  every  thing  is  favorable,  is  t«25 
per  acre,  and  from  tliis  sum  up  to  ?!100  per  acre  may  be 
held  to  be  the  probable  limits  of  tlio  cost,  unless  some 
very  unfavorable  circumstances  proscni  themselves. 

Finally,  it  may  be  stated  that  to  insure  success  in  any 
of  the  methods  of  reclamation  here  considered, 


62  lERIGATION. 

First,  the  space  to  be  reclaimed  must  exist  within  the 
influence  of  water  which  contains  much  alluvial  matter, 
whether  it  be  situated  upon  the  banks  of  an  inland  stream, 
or  of  a  tidal  river  or  estuary. 

Second,  that  the  spaces  to  be  reclaimed  shall  be  allow- 
ed to  receive  the  deposit  left  by  the  water  for  as  long  a 
period  as  possible,  and  the  water  should  not  be  excluded 
until,  by  gradual  accretion,  the  surface  of  the  land  has 
been  brought,  if  possible,  to  the  level  of  high  water  of 
ordinary  tides,  or  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  stream. 

Third,  that  careful  surveys  and  observations  should  be 
made  of  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  solid  matter 
brought  down  by  the  stream,  in  order  to  determine  the 
length  of  time  that  will  be  required  to  complete  the  re- 
clamation ;  its  cost  when  complete,  and  the  probable 
value  of  the  land  when  it  is  made  and  brought  under 
cultivation. 

As  an  instance  of  the  profitable  reclamation  of  marsh 
lands,  bordering  upon  rivers,  and  that  are  periodically 
overflowed,  the  "  tule  "  lands  of  California  may  be  cited. 
These  lands  have  been  formed  by  gradual  accretions, 
brought  down  by  the  rivers,  until  they  have  risen  above 
the  level  of  low  water.  At  seasons  of  flood,  these  lands 
are  overflowed.  When  embanked,  drained,  and  reclaim- 
ed, these  lands  bear  enormous  crops  of  alfalfa,  grass,  or 
wheat.  Eight  tons  of  hay,  and  40  to  75  bushels  of 
wheat,  per  acre,  have  been  grown  upon  these  reclaimed 
lands,  and  there  are  none  more  valuable  than  these  in  the 
whole  State.  The  j)rocess  of  reclamation  consists  of  em- 
banking, draining,  and  irrigating,  although  from  the 
moist  character  of  these  lands,  and  the  great  dtpth  of 
soil,  it  is  only  in  the  more  than  usually  dry  seasons  that 
irrigation  is  found  necessary,  and  then  not  by  any  means 
to  so  great  an  extent  as  is  needed  by  the  valley  lands. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   WATER  SUPPLY.  263 

CHAPTER    XXL 
MEASUREMENT  OF  WATER  SUPPLY. 

TKLOCITT  AlfD  PASSAGE  OF  WATER  IN  PIPES. — PRESSURE  OF  WATER  IN 
PIPES.^KJUANTITY  E8CAPLNG  FROM  SUBMERGED  ORIFICES. — MIXERS* 
INCHES. 

Water  lias  become  a  commercial  commodity,  and  is 
now  largely  bought  and  sold  for  the  purposes  of  irriga- 
tion. Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published, 
the  practice  of  irrigation  has  become  common  over  what 
may  be  called  the  central  and  western  portions  of  the 
United  States,  and  extensive  irrigation  works  have  been 
constructed  as  far  east  as  the  Arkansas  Valley,  in  Kan- 
sas. The  agriculture  of  all  that  part  of  the  country 
which  lies  west  of  the  western  boundary  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  line  of  British 
America,  depends  almost  wholly  upon  irrigation,  and  the 
United  States  will  shortly  possess  the  most  extensive  sys- 
tem of  irrigating  works  in  the  world,  surpassing  even 
those  of  the  East  Indies.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  magni- 
tude of  these  works,  might  be  mentioned  the  new  enter- 
prise in  Merced  County,  California.  Here  the  waters  of 
the  Merced  river  are  taken  in  a  system  of  canals,  seventy- 
five  miles  long,  and  spread  over  four  hundred  thousand 
acres  of  land,  which,  without  tiiis  water,  are  doomed  to 
permanent  aridity  and  worthlessness.  This  territory  has 
now  a  population  of  eight  thousand  only  ;  while  the 
Province  of  Piedmont,  in  Italy,  having  only  fifty  thou- 
sand acres  more  than  Merced  County,  has  two  million 
and  six  hundred  thousand.  This  province  lias  four 
tliousand  miles  of  canals  and  ditches,  and  its  suri)his 
merchantable  products  coin])rise  twenty  million  gallons 
of  wine;  two  million  bushels  of  wheat;  five  million 
pounds  of  rice  ;  forty  million  pounds  of  cheese  ;  more 
than  ten  million  dollars  worth  of  silk,  and  a  large  num- 


264  lEEIGATION". 

ber  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  All  this  is  the  product 
of  irrigation,  and  the  figures  give  us  but  a  faint  idea  of 
what  may  be  accomplished  in  our  own  country  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  of  the  present  rapid  growth  of 
agriculture,  and  of  prosperous  industrial  enterprise. 

Jt  also  gives  us  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  the  merchantable 
/alue  of  water,  tlie  agent  by  which  all  this  wealth  is 
developed  from  an  arid  and  useless  soil,  and  of  the 
necessity  for  husbanding  it  with  the  greatest  care. 
And  this  value,  as  a  matter  of  course,  implies  the  neces- 
sity for  the  farmer  who  purchases  it,  to  know  precisely 
what  he  is  getting  for  his  money,  and  that  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  it,  he  gets  his  right  and  proper  share. 

The  methods  of  measuring  water,  then,  are  of  para- 
mount interest,  not  only  to  purchasers,  but  also  to  owners 


Fig.  140.— MEASURING  THE  CROSS- SECTION   OF   A   STREAM. 

of  streams  who  sell  the  water;  and  some  simple  and 
easy  methods  of  measurements  will  be  found  useful.  A 
flowing  stream  may  be  measured,  and  its  capacity  for 
delivering  water  known,  first,  by  surface  measurement  ; 
and,  second,  when  the  stream  is  small  enough,  by  a  weir 
dam,  made  of  plank,  and  notched  accurately,  as  hereafter 
described.  A  large,  flowing  stream,  is  measured  across 
at  right  angles  to  the  current,  and  its  average  depth  is 
taken  as  shown  in  the  diagram  given  in  figure  140.  The 
depths  are  taken  at  regular  distances  across,  and  the 
measurements  are  added  together.  The  sum  is  divided  by 
the  number  of  measurements,  and  the  product  is  the 
average  depth.  This  average  depth,  multiplied  by  the 
width  of  the  river,  give  the  square  feet  of  section.  The 
next  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  find  the  rate  of  flow.  To  do 
this,  a  stake  is  driven  on  the  bank  of  the  stream  at  a 


MEAStJRr.MEJTT   OP   WATER   SUPPLY. 


265 


convenient  point,  where  the  flow  is  even  and  regular.  A 
float  is  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  stream  above  the 
stake,  and  the  time  at  which  the  float  passes  the  stake  is 
taken.  The  observer  then  goes  down  with  the  float 
along  the  bank,  watch  in  hand,  and  notes  the  precise 
place  which  the  float  passes  at  the  end  of  a  minute.  A 
mark  is  made  here,  and  the  distance  from  it  to  the  stake 
is  measured  in  feet.     This  number  is  multiplied  by  the 


Fig.  141. — MEASURING   THE   QUANTITY  OF  WATER. 

number  of  square  feet  in  the  cross  section,  and  the  total 
sum  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet  passing  down  tlie 
stream  per  minute. 

For  a  small  stream,  a  gate  similar  to  that  shown  in 
figure  130,  page  354,  maybe  nsed  ;  measuring  the  velocity 
as  above  described  ;  but  the  stream  must  not  be  narrowed 
or  confined.  The  best  way  is,  to  make  a  dam  like  that 
shown  at  figure  141.  This  is  made  of  plank,  with  a  notch 
cut  in  it,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  the  opening  l)cing 
beveled  outwards  (see  A  and  B),  and  the  sharp  edge  being 
presented  to  the  stream.  The  bottom  is  beveled  in  the 
same  way.  This  notcli,  or  ojiening,  shonld  not  exceed 
two-thirds  the  width  of  the  stream.     This  2>lank  should 


266 


iimiGATioir. 


be  set  at  a  perfect  level,  and  no  water  permitted  to 
pass  around  it.  A  stake  is  driven  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream,  six  feet  above  the  weir,  and  the  top  of  it  is  left 
on  an  exact  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  notch  in  the 
weir,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  D.  When  the  stream 
is  at  its  normal  How,  the  depth  of  water  is  found  by 
measurius:  with  a  common  square,  as  shown  by  the  line 
C.  The  weir  is  put  in  at  such  a  height  as  will  bring  the 
water  where  the  stake  is  driven  to  a  dead  level,  so  that  it 
passes  over  the  weir  without  any  pressure  or  velocity, 
due  to  a  slope  or  fall.  To  save  the  trouble  of  calculating 
the  quantity  passing  over  such  a  dam,  and  through  such 
an  orifice,  the  following  table  is  given  : 

TABLE  FOR  WEIRS. 


Inches 

Depth  on 

Weir 

0 

Vs 

V4 

3' 
/8 

'A 

Vs 

•A 

Vs 

1 

0.40 

114 

2.09 

3.22 

4.51 

5  92 

7.46 

9.13 

10.88 

12.75 

14.71 

16.76 

18.89 

21.12 

23.42 

25.80 

28.26 

30.78 

0.41 

1.25 

2.12 

3.38 

4.68 

6.10 

7.67 

9  33 

11.11 

13.15 

14.96 

17.02 

19.17 

21.40 

23.71 

26.10 

28.57 

31.U 

0.56 

1.36 

2.36 

3.53 

4.85 

6.30 

7.87 

9.55 

11.34 

13.23 

15.21 

17.28 

19.44 

21.68 

24.01 

26.41 

28.88 

31.43 

0.65 

*1.47 

2.60 

3.69 

5-02 

6.49 

8.07 

9.77 

11.57 

13.47 

15  46 

17.55 

19.72 

21.97 

24.30 

26.71 

29.19 

31.75 

0.74 

1.59 

2.64 

3.85 

5  20 

6.68 

8.28 

9.99 

11.80 

13.73 

15.73 

17.82 

20.00 

23.26 

34.60 

27.02 

29.51 

32.07 

0.83 

1.71 

3.78 

4.01 

5.3S 

6.87 

8.49 

10  31 

12.04 

13.96 

15.93 

18.03 

20.27 

22.  .55 

24.90 

27.32 

29.83 

33.40 

0.97 

1.84 

2.93 

4.17 

5.56 

7.07 

8.70 

10.43 

12.27 

14.21 

18.24 

18.35 

20.56 

22.83 

35  19 

27.63 

30.14 

33.73 

1.03 

2  

1.96 

3 

3.06 

4 

4.35 

6 

5.74 

6 

7 

7.37 
8.91 

8 

10.68 

9      

13.51 

10 

14.46 

11 

16.49 

13 

18.63 

13 

20.83 

14 

23.13 

15 

16 

17 

25.50 
37.94 
30.46 

18 

33.05 

The  above  table  for  weirs  gives  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  per  minute  that  will  pass  over  a  weir  one  inch  wide, 
and  from  one  inch  to  eighteen  and  seven-eighth  inches 
deep.  In  the  left-hand  cohimn,  marked  "  inches  depth 
on  weir,"  is  the  depth  of  water  flowing  over  the  weir, 
and  the  second  column,  under  0,  is  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  per  minute  for  the  even  inches  in  depth.     In  the 


MEASUEEMEITT  OF  WATER   SUPPLY.  267 

third  column,  under  one-eighth,  is  the  amount  of  the 
second  cohimn,  with  the  additional  one-eiglith  inch  in 
depth  added,  and  so  on  across  the  table  from  left  to 
right. 

By  multiplying  the  number  of  cubic  feet  that  one  inch 
in  width  will  discharge,  as  stated  in  table,  by  the  width 
of  the  weir  in  inches,  the  result  will  be  the  total  discharge 
of  weir  per  minute. 

In  estimating  the  quantity  of  water  which  can  be  de- 
livered in  a  sloping  channel,  it  should  not  be  forgotten 
that  as  the  fall  increases,  the  velocity  increases,  accord- 
ing to  a  well  known  principle  in  hydro-dynamics  ;  but 
that  any  quantity  of  water  passing  through  any  given 
orifice,  at  the  head  of  a  fall,  or  slope,  whether  the  pas- 
sage is  opened  or  confined,  cannot  be  increased  by  any 
means  whatever,  other  than  by  adding  to  the  velocity  at 
the  point  of  inflow.  No  possible  draft  or  suction  can 
increase  the  quantity  entering  the  channel  or  passage. 
This  affects  very  considerably  the  passage  of  water 
through  flumes,  or  pipes,  and  may  be  justly  considered 
in  regard  to  the  subject  of  irrigation,  for  it  is  often 
necessary,  or  desirable,  to  carry  water  in  this  way  down 
considerable  declivities.  As  the  velocity  increases,  the 
size  of  the  stream  diminishes  in  exact  ratio,  for  it  is 
evident  that  if  one  cubic  foot  of  water  is  discharged 
through  a  pipe  at  a  velocity  of  two  liundred  feet  per 
minute,  only  half  as  much  can  be  discharged  if  the 
velocity  is  increased  by  the  fall  to  four  hundred  feet  per 
minute.  Moreover,  as  velocity  increases,  so  the  friction 
in  the  pipe  or  channel  increases  ;  and  this  is  to  be  taken 
into  account.  This  friction  is  an  element  opposed  to 
velocity,  and  necessarily  decreases  tlie  amount  of  the  lat- 
ter, which,  according  to  the  law  of  the  velocity  of  falling 
bodies,  increases  in  a  certain  ratio  with  the  distance  and 
the  time.  Thus  a  body  falls  sixteen  feet  the  first  second; 
thirty-two  feet  in  the  next  second  ;    forty-eight  in  the 


268  lERIGATIOJT. 

third ;  and  so  on ;  the  accelerated  velocity  being  in  exact 
ratio  with  the  increase  in  time.  A  body  of  water,  then, 
equal  to  one  square  foot  in  cross  section,  passing  through 
a  pipe  with  a  fall  of  sixteen  feet,  will  leave  the  pipe  at 
the  end  of  forty-eight  feet  in  a  stream  having  only  a  cross 
section  of  forty-eight  square  inches,  or  one  third  of  a  square 
foot,  because  it  has  a  velocity  three  times  as  great  as  when 
it  entered  the  pipe.  This  is,  however,  subject  to  the  re- 
tarding effect  of  friction,  which  varies  very  considerably, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  pipe  ;  the  rougher  the  sur- 
face, and  the  more  tortuous  the  pipe  or  channel  may  be, 
the  greater  will  be  the  friction.  In  practice,  it  has  been 
found  that  in  rough,  wooden  pipes,  with  considerable 
angular  deviation,  nearly  the  whole  effect  of  the  head  is 
easily  lost ;  while  in  smooth,  cast-iron  pipes,  the  loss  is 
about  one-third  for  short  pipes,  up  to  a  total  loss  of  head 
for  a  certain  length  in  small  pipes,  because  it  has  been 
shown,  that  as  the  friction  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity,  and  being  greater  than  the  velocity,  it  must 
necessarily  overpower  the  motive  force,  unless  the  pipe  is 
large,  and  the  fall  is  great  enough  to  increase  the  velocity 
sufficiently.  In  a  case  in  which  the  writer  was  consulted, 
a  leaden  pipe,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  was  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  from  a  spring  twenty-five  hundred 
feet  distant.  A  small  water-wheel  operated  a  force 
pump,  to  drive  the  water  to  the  cistern.  It  was  found 
that  the  discharge  amounted  only  to  a  slow  drip  from  the 
end  of  the  pipe,  and  the  water-wheel  could  scarcely  be 
made  to  move.  The  cause  was  that  the  friction  through 
the  pipe,  neutralized  the  force  of  the  wheel  and  the 
falling  water.  By  a  larger  wheel,  the  pipe  was  burst, 
but  by  replacing  the  first  twelve  hundred  feet  of  pipe 
with  one  of  three-quarter-mch  diameter,  the  flow  of  water 
was  made  satisfactory.  In  another  case,  a  water-works 
company  laid  a  sixteen-inch  pipe  to  carry  the  water,  and 
the  discharge  was  found  inadequate.     The  lower  half  of 


MEASUREMENT   OF    WATER    SUPPLT.  269 

the  pipe  was  relaid  with  one  of  twcnty-iuch  diameter,  but 
the  discharge  was  not  increase  1.  Had  the  upper  half  been 
changed  for  twenty-inch  pipe,  the  lower  pipe  would  have 
delivered  a  full  stream,  and  the  supply  wouhl  have  been 
all  that  had  been  expected.  Such  cases  as  these  are  often 
occurring  in  the  practice  of  hydraulic  engineering,  and 
apply  to  many  circumstances  connected  with  irrigation. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  readers  who  are  able  to 
work  out  algebraical  calculations,  or  who  wish  to  follow 
the  recognized  formulas  given  by  t!ie  hi;diest  authorities 
upon  hydraulic  engineering,  the  following  examples  are 
presented  : 

In  a  perfectly  straight  and  smooth  pipe,  the  quantity 
of  water  that  will  be  discharged  in  a  given  time  depends 
only  upon  the  head.  The  velocity  of  the  water  will  be 
that  acquired  by  falling  through  the  given  head,  and  the 
quantity  discharged  will  be  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the 
cross  section  of  the  pipe.  Algebraically,  these  results 
will  be  expressed  as  follows:  v''=\2gF,  and  Q=:yxS, 
where  v  is  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second,  h  the  head  in 
feet,  Q  the  number  of  cubic  feot  discliargcd  per  second, 
ff  the  velocity  acquired  by  a  body  in  falling  one  second, 
and  S  the  cross  section  of  the  pipe  in  feet. 

In  practice,  it  is  found  that  the  actual  velocity  with 
the  smoothest  pipes,  made  is  much  less  than  the  theoreti- 
cal ;  part  of  the  head  being  taken  up  in  overcoming  the 
resistance  of  friction.  In  the  case  of  curved  pipes,  there 
is  another  loss  of  head,  and  consequently  of  velocity,  at 
each  bend.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  amount  of  this  frictional  resistance,  and 
formulas  have  been  constructed  from  the  results.  These 
formulas  should  always  be  clieckcd  by  acttual  experiment, 
when  great  accuracy  is  required,  as  the  results  are  greatly 
altered  by  seemingly  unimportant  details.  Our  object, 
here,  is  to  give  the  best  and  simplest  formula  for  general 
Dse.     Very  good  tables,  showing  the  amount  of  water 


270 


IKRIGATIO:sr. 


discharged  under  different  heads  from  pipes  of  various 
diameters  and  lengths,  will  be  found  in  Trautwine's 
"Engineer's  Pocket  Book." 

For  smooth  iron  pipes,  Prony's  formula  is  as  follows  : 
7i=8'00040085 xL-f?[(vX 0-15412)'— 0-02375)]  ;  it  may 
be  thus  translated  :  To  find  the  necessary  head  of  water 
to  produce  a  given  velocity  of  discharge,  add  0-15412  to 
the  velocity,  square  the  sum,  subtract  0*02375,  and  mul- 
tiply the  difference  by  0-00040085  times  the  length  of  the 
pipe  divided  by  the  diameter,  noting  that  all  dimensions 
are  to  be  taken  in  feet. 


Table  Showing  the  Velocity  and  Discharge  op  Water  Through 
Submerged  Orifices. 

Showing  the  theoretical  apoutin'j  velocity  ofioater  in  feet  per  necond  and  num- 
ber of  cubic  feet  discharged  per  mifiute  through  an  orifice  of  one 
inch  area,  under  different  heads,  from  one  to  forty  feet. 

(Calculated  from  Fbancis'  Formulas.) 


1. 

1.^ 

11 

ic  feet  per 
niie,  area 
ifice.  1  in. 

1,4 

■2  § 

1 

^1 

>> 

^§ 

1 

8.02 

3.34 

11 

26.60 

2 

11.34 

4.73 

12 

27.78 

8 

13.  S9 

5.78 

13 

28.91 

4 

16.04 

6.6S 

14 

30.00 

5 

17.93 

7.47 

15 

31.06 

6 

19.64 

8.18 

16 

32.08 

7 

21.22 

8.84 

17 

33.06 

8 

22.68 

9.45 

18 

34.02 

9 

24.06 

10.0:2 

19 

34.9(5 

10 

25.36 

10.57 

20 

35.87 

e 
O  S 


:s 


^ 


■^ 


11.08 
11.57 
12.05 
12.49 
12.94 
13.36 
13.77 
14.18 
14.57 
14.94 


36.75 
37.  (52 
38.46 
39.29 
40.10 
40.89 
41.67 
42.43 
43.19 
43.93 


.«    ,.-  .u' 


15.31 
15.66 
1().02 
16.36 
16.71 
17.04 
17.36 
17.68 
17.98 
18.30 


S 


44.65 
45.37 
46.07 
46.76 
47.45 
4S.12 
4S.78 
49.44 
50.08 
50.72 


18.60 
18.90 
19.20 
19.48 
19.76 
20.05 
20.33 
20.60 
20.87 
21.13 


The  above  table  represents  the  Tlieoretic  velocity  and 
discharge  due  to  the  orifice. 

The  Method  op  Measuring  Water  for  irrigating 
purposes,  when  it  is  paid  for  by  the  measure,  is  obviously 
very  important  to  both  the  purchaser  and  the  seller. 
There  is  a  vast  difference  between  theory  and  practice  in 


MEASUEEMEXT   OF   WATER   SUPrLY. 


271 


this  respect.  Indeed,  theoretical  hydro-dynamics  is  not 
to  be  depended  upon,  until  it  is  adequately  proved  by 
practical  experiment ;  nor  is  it  safe  to  reason  from  one 
set  of  experiments,  as  a  guide  under  different  circum- 
stances. For  instance,  the  table,  i>.  2?0,  is  given  tliat 
it  may  be  compared  with  the  practical  methods  used  in 
irrigating,  and  other  hydraulic  works,  but  chiefly  iu  hv- 
draulic  mining  in  California. 

In  ordinary  practice,  the  actual  velocity  and  discharge 
is  very  much  less  than  this,  as  will  be  seen,  when  we 
come  to  compare  these  figures  with  those  calculated  and 
used  by  the  hydraulic  miners  iu  California. 

The  "miner's  inch,"  is  an  arbitrary  measurement  of 
water,  established  many  years  ago  by  the  miners  iu  the 


Fig.  143.— MEASURING  AN  INCH  OF  WATER. 

various  camps,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  which  they 
adopted.  It  is  a  quantity  of  water,  which  is  discharged 
from  an  opening  one  inch  square,  through  a  two-inch 
plank,  with  a  pressure  of  six  inches  above  the  opening. 
The  illustration  given  in  figure  142,  shows  how  the 
opening  in  the  plank  is  made  to  permit  free  escape  of 
the  water. 

The  "  Smartville  inch,"  is  calculated  from  a  discharge 
through  a  four-inch  orifice,  with  a  seven-inch  board 
above   the  opening ;    thus  giving  a  nine-inch   pressure 


273  IREIGATIOJT. 

from  the  center.  This  amount  of  pressure,  however,  is 
fallacious,  because  it  does  not  exist  above  the  upper 
edge  of  the  opening  ;  the  rush  of  water  to  and  through 
the  orifice  removing  a  considerable  portion  of  the  pres- 
sure, due  to  the  hight  above  the  center  of  the  opening. 
The  pressure  may,  therefore,  be  considered  to  be  due 
only  to  the  seven-inch  head.  The  bottom  of  the  aperture 
is  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  the  board 
which  regulates  the  pressure,  is  one  inch  thick  and  seven 
inches  wide.  An  opening  four  inches  wide,  and  two 
hundred  and  fifty  inches  long,  with  tiie  seven-inch  pres- 
sure above  the  top  of  the  orifice,  discliarges  one  thousand 
Smartville  inches.  Each  square  inch  of  the  opening  dis- 
charges 1.76  cubic  feet  per  minute,  which  is  nearly  the 
same  as  the  discharge  per  inch  from  a  two-inch  orifice 
through  a  three-inch  plank,  with  a  pressure  of  nine 
inches  above  the  center  of  the  opening,  and  which  is 
equal  to  1.78  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  Smartville 
inch,  discharges  3,534.40  cubic  feet  in  twenty-four  hours; 
but  the  inch  in  this  district  is  only  calculated  for  eleven 
hours  discharge. 

The  inch  of  the  ''Park  Canal  Company,"  in  El  Dorado 
County,  California,  discharges  1.39  cubic  feet  per  min- 
ute. That  of  the  "  South  Yuba  Canal  Company,"  is 
composed  from  a  discharge  aperture  two  inches  square, 
through  a  one  and  one-half  inch  plank,  with  a  pressure  of 
six  inches  above  the  center  of  the  orifice.  The  "La  Grange 
Canal  Company's  "  inch,  is  calculated  from  a  discharge 
through  an  opening,  fifty  inches  long,  and  two  inches 
wide,  through  a  three-inch  plank  ;  the  level  of  the  water 
being  seven  inches  above  the  center  of  the  opening. 

An  elaborate  series  of  experiments  were  made  to  es- 
tablish the  actual  value  of  this  inch,  at  an  elevation  of 
twenty-nine  hundred  feft  above  sea  level  (a  barometrical 
pressure  of  about  26.7  inches).  The  orifice  used  was  a 
rectangular  slit,  fifty  inches  long,  and  two  inches  wide, 


MEASUKEMEXT    OF   WATER   SUPPLY.  273 

with  a  pressure  of  seven  inches  above  the  center  of  the 
aperture.  The  plank  used  was  three  inches  tliick,  the 
last  opening  chamfered  for  one  inch,  as  shown  at  figure 
1-42.  The  size  of  the  opening,  and  the  level  of  the  water, 
and  the  time,  were  all  measured  with  the  greatest  scien- 
tific accuracy,  and  with  the  most  exact  micrometrical 
adjustments.     The  following  results  were  obtained  : 

Cubic  feet. 

Discharge  of  one  inch  per  second 0.2624 

"  "     "       "       "    minute 1.5744 

•'  "     "       "       "    hour     94.4640 

"    "      "       "    24  hours 2267.1360 

The  ratio  of  the  actual  to  the  theoretical  discharge  was 
61.6  per  cent.  These  figures  are  supposed  to  be  prac- 
tically exact,  as  every  precaution  was  taken  by  frequent 
repetition,  to  eliminate  any  possible  error. 

Other  experiments  were  made  to  test  the  La  Grange 
inch,  with  the  following  results,  viz: 

Cubic  feet. 

Discharge  of  one  inch  in  one  second 0.2499 

"  "     "      "      "     •'    minute 1.4994 

"  "     "       "      •'     "    hour 89.9940 

"  "    "      "      "    24  hours 2159.1460 

Eatio  of  the  actual  to  the  theoretical  discharge,  59.05 
pe^'  cent. 

These  results  are  now  made  the  basis  of  the  measure- 
ments of  water  delivered  by  the  canal  companies  when 
sales  are  made  by  the  inch.  This  is  the  most  satisfactory 
method,  and  when  the  inch  is  calculated  for  the  whole 
of  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  aperture  is  accurately 
measured,  the  purchaser  can  use  no  more  than  he  pays 
for,  and  he  can  not  have  less,  so  long  as  the  level  of  the 
water  is  maintained  at  the  distributing  gate.  It  is  seen 
by  the  ^-bovc  statement,  in  regard  to  the  Sniartville  inch, 
that  when  the  orifice  is  on  a  level  with  the  floor  of  the 
gate,  the  discharge  is  somqwhat  larger  than  when  the 


274  IRRIGATION. 

opening  is  raised  above  the  floor.  By  noting  the  con- 
verging lines,  indicating  the  rush  of  the  water  to  the 
opening,  when  it  is  above  the  floor,  it  will  be  seen  that 
cross  currents  are  made  by  which  the  flow  is  retarded, 
and  less  water  is  passed  than  when  these  currents  are 
prevented  by  the  floor  of  the  measuring  gate. 


INDEX. 


Abeorption  of  Water  by  Soils 24 

Alfalfa,  Cultivation  of 186 

Arable  Laiids,  IniL,'atioii  of 163 

♦Arraugenieut  of  Irrigated  Garden.  46 
Artesian  Wells,  Inadequacy  of..  ^3-207 
*Artesiau  Welis,  Principle  of 236 

♦Bank.  River,  Protection  of 259 

♦Beds,  Formation  of  for  Gardens. . .  41 

Beets,  Ciiltivatiiin  of 188 

Broom  Corn,  Cultivation  of 183 

•California,  Canals,  Plan  of,  in 192 

Rainfall  in 15 

Irrigation  by  Tiles  in 56 

Irriijalion  in 1~1 

Broom  Corn  in 183 

Value  of  Tule  Lands  in 26i 

Vineyards  in 88 

♦CauaU,  Capacity  of 246 

Formation  of 191-237-244-249 

Proper  Fall  for 238  | 

Protection  of  Banks 243 

*Cart  for  Liquid  Manure 70 

♦Cistern,  Brick 37 

♦  Open 38 

ni  mate.  Effects  of 26 

Clov.-r.  Cultivation  of 187 

Co. 01  ado.  Irriu'ation  in 167 

Cotton,  Cultivation  of 1S5 

Commission,  Conj^ressioiial  to  Cali- 
fornia  173 

Corn,  Cultivation  of 183 

Cost  of  Irrigation 30-161-168 

of  Reclaiming'  Salt  Marshes.. 261 

Croton  River  Water,  Analy-'is  of 19 

Crops,  Manajjement  of  various  Gar- 
den   81 

Mana^'ement  of  Field  183 

Cultivation  of  the  Soil   79 

•Culrert  for  a  road 50 

♦  for  a  Reservoir 2.32 

♦Cut-off  in  a  Bend  of  River 258 

♦Dam.  Form  of 111-214 

♦  Brush  and  Lo;: 221 

♦  Construction  of 207-215 

♦  Piles  and  Rock 221 

Rule  for  Calcul.ilint;  Size  of.  .215 

♦  Win;,',  Lonjjiludinal 208 

♦  Cross  210 

♦  with  Culvert  and  Tower 232 

Delaware  River  Wa.tiT,  Analysis  of.  19 
Draina;.'e  with  Irri'.'iition   115 

of  Irrii.rate(l  Flidds 145 

♦  of  S'A-amp,  Kxainples  of Mt> 

♦  of  a  M(;adow  119 


Drains.  Position  of 79 

♦  of  Stone  114 

♦  between  Furrows 142 

♦  Manner  of  Closin<; 150 

♦Drills,  Irriiiaiion  of  Crops  in 43 

Effects  of  Irrijration  on  Nut-bearing 

Trees 93 

on  Orchards  and  Vineyards  ..  94 

Errors  in  Estimates     ,    23 

Estimates  of  Water  Needed. . .     ...  23 

Evaporation  of  Water 12-25-26 

Flax,  Cultivation  of 184 

♦Flow.  Manner  ofDiveriin;; 136 

Fodder  Crops 77-187 

Fruits.  Culture  of 86 

♦Furrows  for  Steep  Slope 45 

♦  Form  of 49-139 

♦  Protecled 49 

♦  Cross.  Trouu'li  for  50 

♦  for  a  Meadow 135-139 

♦  for  Inclined  Field 136 

♦  Layini;  Out 141 

♦  for  a  Slope 141-142 

♦  Catchwater 144 

♦  for  Irre^'ular  Surface 194 

Garden  Crops,  Culture  of 78-81 

Time  for  Watering 79 

Gardens,  Irrigation  of 31-46 

♦Gates,  Hand 45-248 

♦  for  Draining  Meadows 127 

♦  for  Canals.; 127-247 

♦  Waste 254 

Grade,  Proper  for  Canals 2.54 

Grass.  Value  of  Crop 17 

Priiduct     of,     on     Irrigated 

Meadows 96 

Greeley,  (Col.),  Irrigating  Canals...  16H 

Ilenii),  Cultivation  of     1>^ 

♦IIills.  (;rops  in.  Irrigation  of 44 

♦  Furrows  for 144 

♦  Terraces  for 144 

♦  Improvement  of 200 

Hollow.  Iinprovemcnt  of  a 200 

Horse-Power.  KllV.i  of 34 

Hudson  River  Wati-r,  Analysis  of...   19 
♦Hurdles  t>r  Pastures... 1.53 

♦  Movalile 154 

♦  Plan  of  Setting 1.55 

♦Implements  Used  In  Irrlu'ation. 138-203 

Inipioveinenl  of  Land  for IHO 

liri"aleil  Fields,  Maniigemenl  of.    .162 

♦  Plan  of 19!» 


87$ 


lUmtrakd. 


276 


INDEX. 


Irrigation,  Cost  of 164 

Antiquity  of 165-178 

in  Coloiiulo 167 

Effects  of 181 

Italy,  Irrij^atiou  in 28 

Kansas,  PossilMlity  of  Irrigation  in. 170 

Lands  tha^,  tnay  l)e  Irrijjated 21 

♦Level  for  Drains 115 

Liquid Maiiuie,  Irrigation  with 57 

Manajiera  nt  of. 65 

*  Plans  for  Use  of 59 

•  Pump  for 68 

•  Tank  for...    67 

Value  of 72 

*  Use  of  on  Farms 73 

for  Fodder  Crops 77 

♦Meadow,  Irrisated,  Plan  of..97-99-l&5 
Water.  Formation  of  118-134-137 

Drainage  of 122-142 

Fertilizers  lor 161 

Grasses  for 120-159 

•  in  a  Valley 123 

in  Eastern  Fiance. 130 

Management  of 128-158 

*  with       Furrows       and 

Drains 142 

Meadows  and  Pastures,  Irrigation  ofl33 

Irrigal  ion  of 95 

Irrigated,  in  England  1(M 

Time  of  Irrigation  of 100-132 

Orchards,  Irrigation  of S7 

*  Irrigated,  Plan  of 88-89 

Ownership  of  Water 172 

Passaic  River  Water,  Analysis  of. . .  19 
Pastures,  Irrigation  of 153 

*  Hurdles  for 153 

Season  for  Trriu'ation  of 156 

Pipes,  Capacity  of 34 

♦  and  Hose,  Irrigation  by 53 

♦  and  Hydrants.  Irrigation  by..  .54 
Irrigation  by 51 

♦  Irri\ration  of  Meadows  by 55 

Plow,  Swivel,  Use  of .190 

Profit  of  Irrigation 174 

Puddle  Work  in  Dams 219 

♦Pump.  Blum's  Universal  Force.  ..226 

♦  Centrilueal        224 

♦  Liquid  Manure  68 

♦  Steam,  Whitman  &  Burrell'8.225 

♦  Wooden 39 

Pumps,  Use  of 222 

Rainfall  in  Enarland  and  America.      11 

in  California 15 

increased  by  Irrigation 181 

Reclamation  of  River  Flats 2.56 

Salt  Marslics 2.55 

Sui'merged  Lands 2.5ti 

Reservoirs.  Ancient  in  India 227 

Capacity  of 207 

Construction  of 228-2.34 

in  a  Valley 229 

f        JVIanner  of  pjscUarging 108  , 


♦Reservoirs  on  Uneven  Gronnd  . . .  2S4 

♦  Plan  of 107-108 

Rivers,  Capacity  of 35 

Solid  Matter  Conveyed  by . . .     20 

Us  •  of,  in  Irrigation 35 

♦Roads,  Culverts  lor .50 

♦Rollers 206 

Rolling,  Effects  of 206 

Schuylkill  River  Water,  Analysis  i,|    19 
♦Scr.iper  lor  Leveling  the  Sc.ii,.lot3  203 

Siltinjr.  Improvement  by -^53 

Siphon  for  a  Reservoir 110 

♦SlopingGround.FiUTows  f(ir43-141-142 

Soils,  Absorptive  Powers  of 24 

Sorghum,  Cultivation  of 187 

♦Spout  for  Passing  Water    128 

Springs,  Inadequacy  of 29 

♦  Collecting  Water  of 112-117 

♦  Use  of  in  Irrigation 105-116 

Streams,  Velocity  of 240 

Subsoil,  Effects  of 29 

Supply  of  M'ater 207 

Surface,  Prejiaration  of 40-189 

Irregular 195 

♦Tank,  Barrel 62 

♦Tanks  for  a  House 59 

♦  for  Storage  of  Water 33 

♦  Liquid  Manure 67 

♦  Self-Discharging 60 

Teasels,  Cultivation  of 188 

Terraciiig  Hill-sides 1-44-201 

Tiles,  Irrigation  by 51 

Tobacco,  Cultivation  of 185 

Utah,  Irrigation  in 181 

♦Valleys.  Geological  Form  of.  .2.30-231 
Value  of  Lan<ls  that  may  be  Irrigated  51 

of  Crdps  by  Irrigation 52 

♦Vahes  for  Discharging 2.32 

Velocity  of  Streams 210 

Vineyards,  Iri-iiration  of 87 

in  CMlilornia 88 

in  Europe 88 

Irrigated,  Plan  of 91 

Water  a  Nutriment  for  Plants 9 

Amount  contained  in  Plants..  9 
Evaporate^l  for  one  Ih.  of  grain  12 
Analysis  of  River  Waters.  ...  19 
Amount  neede>.  for  Irrigation 

21-27 

Meadows  in  England  102 

♦  Formation  of... 118-123-126 
Grasses  for.    120 

*  Mode  of  Elevating 124 

Costof 177 

Snpi)lvof 207 

Pressure  of 212 

WeiL'ht  (.f  Cube  Foot  of 36 

Waterint.'.  Times  for 79-179 

♦Wells.  Ini-alion  from 48 

Wlicat  Cnip.  Management  of 182 

♦Wlieel  fi.r  Riiising  Water 124 

♦Wiiidmilis   32 

Winter  Irrigalioii lOJ 


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lead  to  successful  dairying.  It  may  also  be  used  as  an 
elementary  textbook  for  colleges,  and  especially  in  sliort- 
course  classes.     Illustrated.    5x7  inches.    300  pages.     Cloth. 

Net,  $1.25 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Buttermaking 

By  Chas  a.  Publow.  This  book  is  entirely  different 
from  the  usual  type  of  dairy  books,  and  is  undoubtedly  in 
a  class  by  itself.  The  entire  subject  of  butter-makmg  in 
all  its  branches  has  been  most  thoroughly  treated,  and 
many  new  and  important  features  have  been  added.  Ihe 
tests  for  moisture,  salt  and  acid  have  received  special 
attention,  as  have  also  Uie  questions  on  cream  scpara-. 
tion  pasteurization,  commercial  starters,  cream  ripening, 
cream  overrun,  marketing  of  butter,  and  creamery  man- 
agement. Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  100  pages.  Cloth. 
^  Net,  $0.50 

Questions  and  Answers  on  Milk  and  Milk  Testing 
By  Ciias  a.  Pum.ow,  and  Hugh  C.  Tkoy.  A  book  tliat 
no  student  in  the  dairy  industry  can  afford  to  be  witliout 
No  other  treatise  of  its  kind  is  available,  and  no  book  ot 
its  si/e  gives  so  much  practical  and  useful  information  in 
the  study  of  milk  and  milk  products.  Illustrated.  5x7 
inches.      100   pages.      Cloth Net.  $0.50 

(3> 


Soils 

By  Charles  William  Burkett,  Director  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  The  most  complete  and 
popular  work  of  the  kind  ever  published.  As  a  rule,  a 
book  of  this  sort  is  dry  and  uninteresting,  but  in  this  case 
it  reads  like  a  novel.  The  author  has  put  into  it  his  in- 
dividuality. The  story  of  the  properties  of  the  soils,  their 
improvement  and  management,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
the  problems  of  crop  growing  and  crop  feeding,  make  this 
book  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer,  student  and  teacher. 
Illustrated.    303  pages.     53^x8  inches.     Cloth.     .     Net,  $1.25 

Weeds  of  the  Farm  Garden 

By  L.  H.  Pammel.  The  enormous  losses,  amounting 
to  several  hundred  million  dollars  annually  in  the  United 
States,  caused  by  weeds  stimulate  us  to  adopt  a  better 
system  of  agriculture.  The  weed  question  is,  therefore 
a  most  important  and  vital  one  for  American  farmeri 
This  treatise  will  enable  the  farmer  to  treat  his  field  to 
remove  weeds.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  photo- 
graphs and  drawings  made  expressly  for  this  work,  and 
will  prove  invaluable  to  every  farmer,  land  owner,  gar- 
dener and  park  superintendent.  5x7  inches.  300  pages. 
Cloth Net,  $1.50 

Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 

By  J.  B.  Davidson  and  L.  W.  Chase.  Farm  Machinery 
and  Farm  Motors  is  the  first  American  book  published 
on  the  subject  of  Farm  Machinery  since  that  written  by 
J.  J.  Thomas  in  1867.  This  was  before  the  development 
of  many  of  the  more  important  farm  machines,  and  the 
general  application  of  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm. 
Modern  farm  machinery  is  indispensable  in  present-day 
farming  operations,  and  a  practical  book  like  Farm  Ma- 
chinery and  Farm  Motors  will  fill  a  much-felt  need.  The 
book  has  been  written  from  lectures  used  by  the  authors 
before  their  classes  for  several  years,  and  which  were  pre- 
pared from  practical  experience  and  a  thorough  review  of 
the  literature  pertaining  to  the  subject.  Although  written 
,  primarily  as  a  text-book,  it  is  equally  useful  for  the  prac- 
tical farmer.  Profusely  illustrated.  SJ^xB  inches.  520 
pages.     Cloth Net,  $2.00 

The  Book  of  Wheat 

By  P.  T.  Dondlinger.  This  book  comprises  a  complete 
study  of  everything  pertaining  to  wheat.  It  is  the  work 
of  a  student  of  economic  as  well  as  agricultural  condi- 
tions, well  fitted  by  the  broad  experience  in  both  practical 
and  theoretical  lines  to  tell  the  whole  story  in  a  condensed 
form.  It  is  designed  for  the  farmer,  the  teacher,  and  the 
student  as  well.  Illustrated.  5>2x8  inches.  370  pages. 
Cloth.    ...  -  - Net,  $2.00 

(4) 


The  Cereals  in  America 

By  Thomas  F.  Hunt,  M.S.,  D.Agri.,  Professor  of  Agron- 
omy, Cornell  University.  If  you  raise  live  acres  of  any  kind 
of  grain  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without  this  book.  It  is  in 
e^•ery  way  the  best  book  on  the  subject  that  has  ever  been 
written.  It  treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every 
grain  crop  raised  in  America  in  a  thoroughly  practical  and 
accurate  manner.  The  subject-matter  includes  a  comprehen- 
sive and  succinct  treatise  of  wheat,  maize,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
rice,  sorghum  (kafir  corn)  and  buckwheat,  as  related  particu- 
larly to  American  conditions.  P"irst-hand  knowledge  has  been 
the  policy  of  the  author  in  his  work,  and  every  crop  treated  is 
presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of  the  plant.  If  you 
have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best  that  has  been 
written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages.  5^x8 
inches.     Cloth $1.75 

The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 

By  Thomas  F.  Hunt.  This  book  is  exactly  what  its  title 
indicates.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  farmer,  student  and 
teacher  who  wishes  all  the  latest  and  most  important  informa- 
tion on  the  subject  of  forage  and  fiber  crops.  Like  its  famous 
companion,  "The  Cereals  in  America,"  by  the  same  author,  it 
treats  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  every  one  of  the 
forage  and  fiber  crops.  With  this  book  in  hand,  you  have 
the  latest  and  most  up-to-date  information  available.  Illus- 
trated. 428  pages.    5^x8  inches.     Cloth $i-7S 

The  Book  of  Alfalfa 

History,  Cultivation  and  Merits.  Its  Uses  as  a  Forage 
and  Fertilizer.  The  appearance  of  the  Hon.  F.  D.  Coburn's 
little  book  on  Alfalfa  a  few  years  ago  has  been  a  profit  revela- 
tion to  thousands  of  farmers  throughout  the  country,  and  the 
increasing  demand  for  still  more  information  on  the  subject 
has  induced  the  author  to  prepare  the  present  volume,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  authoritative,  complete  and  valuable  work 
on  this  forage  crop  published  anywhere.  It  is  printed  on  fine 
pjiper  and  illustrated  with  many  full-page  photographs  that 
were  taken  with  the  esi)ccial  view  of  their  relation  tf)  the  text. 
336  pages.  6V2  X  9  inches.  Bound  in  cloth,  with  gold  stamp- 
ing. It  is  unquestionably  the  handsomest  agricultural  refer- 
ence book  that  has  ever  been  issued.     Price,  postpaid,  .     $-J.oo 

Clean  Milk 

By  S.  D.  Belcher,  M.D.  In  this  book  the  author  sets  forth 
practical  methods  for  the  exclusion  of  bacteria  from  milk, 
and  how  to  prevent  contamination  »i  milk  from  the  st.ible 
to    the    consumer.      Illustrated.      5x7    inches.      146    pages. 

Cloth $'"0 

(5) 


Bean  Culture 

By  Glenn  C.  Sevey,  B.S.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  pro* 
duction  and  marketing  of  beans.  It  includes  the  manner  ol 
growth,  soils  and  fertilizers  adapted,  best  varieties,  seed  selec- 
tion and  breeding,  planting,  harvesting,  insects  and  fungous 
pests,  composition  and  feeding  value ;  with  a  special  chapter 
on  markets  by  Albert  W.  Fulton.  A  practical  book  for  the 
grower  and  student  alike.  Illustrated.  144  pages.  5x7 
inches.      Cloth $0.50 

Celery  Culture 

By  W.  R.  Beattie.  A  practical  guide  for  beginners  and  a 
standard  reference  of  great  interest  to  persons  already  en- 
gaged in  celery  growing.  It  contains  many  illustrations  giving 
a  clear  conception  of  the  practical  side  of  celery  culture.  ''The 
work  is  complete  in  every  detail,  from  sowing  a  few  seeds  in 
a  window-box  in  the  house  for  early  plants,  to  the  handling 
and  marketing  of  celery  in  carload  lots.  Fully  illustrated. 
150  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Tomato  Culture 

By  Will  W.  Tracy.  The  author  has  rounded  .up  in  this 
book  the  most  complete  account  of  tomato  culture  in  all  its 
phases  that  has  ever  been  gotten  togetiicr.  It  is  no  seconri- 
hand  work  of  reference,  but  a  complete  story  of  the  practice  ^ 
experiences  of  the  best-posted  expert  on  tomatoes  in  the 
world.  No  gardener  or  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  the 
book.  Whether  grown  for  home  use  or  commercial  purposes, 
the  reader  has  here  suggestions  and  information  nowhere  else 
available.    Illustrated.    150  pages.    5  x  7  inches.    Cloth.    $0.50 

The  Potato 

By  Samuel  Fraser.  This  book  is  destined  to  rank  as  a 
standard  work  upon  Potato  Culture.  While  the  practical  side 
has  been  emphasized,  the  scientific  part  has  not  been  neglected, 
and  the  information  given  is  of  value,  both  to  the  grower  and 
to  the  student.  Taken  all  in  all,  it  is  the  most  complete,  reliable 
and  authoritative  book  on  the  potato  ever  published  in  Amer- 
ica.   Illustrated.    200  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.    .     .     $0.75 

Dwarf  Fruit  Trees 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  This  interesting  book  describes  in  detail 
the  several  varieties  of  dwarf  fruit  trees,  their  propagation, 
planting,  pruning,  care  and  general  management.  Where 
there  is  a  limited  amount  of  ground  to  be  devoted  to  orchard 
purposes,  and  where  quick  results  are  desired,  this  book  will 
meet  with  a  warm  welcome.  Illustrated.  112  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth $0.50 

(6) 


Cabbage,  Cauliflower  and  Allied  Vegetables 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  practical  treatise  on  the  various 
types  and  varieties  of  cabbage,  caulitiower,  broccoli.  Brussels 
sprouts,  kale,  collards  and  kohl-rabi.  An  explanation  is  given 
of  the  requirements,  conditions,  cultivation  aiid  general  man- 
agement pertaining  to  the  entire  cabbage  group.  After  this 
each  class  is  treated  separately  and  in  detail.  The  chapter 
on  seed  raising  is  probably  the  most  authoritative  treatise  on 
this  subject  ever  published.  Insects  and  fungi  attacking  this 
class  of  vegetables  are  given  due  attention.  Illustrated  i-^e 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 

Asparagus 

By  F.  M.  Hexamer.  This  is  the  first  book  published  in 
America  which  is  exclusively  devoted  to  the  raising  of  aspara- 
gus for  home  use  as  well  as  for  market.  It  is  a  practicr*' 
and  reliable  treatise  on  the  saving  of  the  seed,  raising  of  the 
plants,  selection  and  preparation  of  the  soil,  planting,  cultiva- 
tion, manuring,  cutting,  bunching,  packing,  marketing,  canning 
and  drying,  insect  enemies,  fungous  diseases  and  every  re- 
quirement to  successful  asparagus  culture,  special  emphasis  be- 
ing given  to  the  importance  of  asparagus  as  a  farm  and  money 
crop,     illustrated.     174  pages.    5x7  inches.     Cloth.     .     $0.50 

The  New  Onion  Culture 

By  T.  Grfiner.  Rewritten,  greatly  enlarged  and  brought 
up  to  date.  A  new  method  of  growing  onions  of  largest  size 
and  yield,  on  less  land,  than  can  be  raised  Bv  the  old  plan. 
Thousands  of  farmers  and  gardeners  and  many  cx])crimcnl 
stations  have  given  it  practical  trials  which  have  i)n)vcd  a 
success.  A  complete  guide  in  growing  onions  with  the  great- 
est profit,  explaining  the  whys  and  wherefores.  Illustrated. 
5x7  inches.     140  pages.     Cloth $0.50 

The  New  Rhubarb  Culture 

A  complete  guide  to  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part 
I--By  J.  E.  Morse,  the  well-known  Miciiigan  trucker  and 
originator  of  the  now  famous  and  extremely  profitaljle  now 
rnetbods  of  dark  forcing  and  field  culture.  Part  II— Com- 
piled by  G.  P..  Imske.  Other  methods  i)racticcd  by  the  most 
experienced  market  gardeners,  greenhoiisL-  men  and  experi- 
menters in  all  parts  of  America.  Illustrated.  130  pages. 
5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

(7> 


Alfalfa 

By  F.  D.  CoBURN.  Its  growth,  uses,  and  feeding  value. 
The  fact  that  alfalfa  thrives  in  almost  any  soil;  that  without 
reseeding,  it  goes  on  yielding  two,  three,  four,  and  sometimes 
five  cuttings  annually  for  five,  ten,  or  perhaps  lOO  years ;  and 
that  either  green  or  cured  it  is  one  of  the  most  nutritious 
forage  plants  known,  makes  reliable  information  upon  its  pro- 
duction and  uses  of  unusual  interest.  Such  information  is 
given  in  this  volume  for  every  part  of  America,  by  the  highest 
authority.    Illustrated.    164  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.    $0.50 

Ginseng,    Its    Cultivation,    Harvesting,    Marketing 
and  Market  Value 

By  Maurice  G.  Kains,  with  a  short  account  of  its  history 
and  botany.  It  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to  begin  with 
either  seeds  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location,  preparation 
planting  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  artificial  propagation, 
manures,  enemies,  selection  for  market  and  for  improvement, 
preparation  for  sale,  and  the  profits  that  may  be  expected. 
This  booklet  is  concisely  written,  well  and  profusely  illus- 
trated, and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow 
this  drug  to  supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and 
profitable  industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  regular  work.  New  edition.  Revised  and  en- 
larged.    Illustrated.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Landscape  Gardening 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture,  university  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art ;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  paragraph  is 
short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect  clearness  to  the 
discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of  the  natural  difficulty 
of  presenting  abstract  principles  the  whole  matter  is  made 
entirely  plain  even  to  the  inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated. 
152  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

Hedges,  Windbreaks,  Shelters  and  Live  Fences 

By  E.  P.  Powell.  A  treatise  on  the  planting,  growth 
and  management  of  hedge  plants  for  country  and  suburban 
homes.  It  gives  accurate  directions  concerning  hedges;  how 
to  plant  and  how  to  treat  them ;  and  especially  concerning 
windbreaks  and  shelters.  It  includes  the  whole  art  of  making 
a  delightful  home,  giving  directions  for  nooks  and  balconies, 
for  bird  culture  and  for  human  comfort.  Illustrated.  140 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $0.50 

(8) 


Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States  of  America 

By  William  Jasper  Spillman.  A  practical  treatise  on 
the  grass  crop,  seeding  and  management  of  meadows  and 
pastures,  description  of  the  best  varieties,  the  seed  and  its 
impurities,  grasses  for  special  conditions,  lawns  and  lawn 
grasses,  etc.,  etc.  In  preparing  this  volume  the  author's  object 
has  been  to  present,  in  connected  form,  the  main  facts  con- 
cerning the  grasses  grown  on  American  farms.  Every  phase 
of  the  subject  is  viewed  from  the  farmer's  standpoint.  Illus- 
trated.   248  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.0 

The  Book  of  Corn 

By  Herbert  Myrick,  assisted  by  A.  D.  Shambia,  E.  A, 
Burnett,  Albert  W.  Fulton,  B.  W.  Snow^,  and  other  most 
capable  specialists.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  culture,  mar- 
keting and  uses  of  maize  in  America  and  elsewhere  for 
farmers,  dealers  and  others.  Illustrated.  372  pages.  5x7 
inches.      Cloth $1.50 


The  Hop — Its   Culture  and   Care,   Marketing  and 
Manufacture 

By  Herbert  Myrick.  A  practical  handbook  on  the  most 
approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing  and  selling 
hops,  and  on  the  use  and  manufacture  of  hops.  The  result  oi 
years  of  research  and  observation,  it  is  a  volume  destined  to 
be  an  authority  on  this  crop  for  many  years  to  come.  It  takes 
up  every  detail  from  preparing  the  soil  and  laying  out  the 
yard,  to  curing  and  selling  the  crop.  Every  line  represents  the 
ripest  judgment  and  experience  of  experts.  Size,  5x8; 
pages,  300;  illustrations,  nearly  150;  bound  in  cloth  and  gnld; 
price,  postpaid. $i-50 

Tobacco  Leaf 

By  J.  B.  Ktllebrew  and  Herbert  Myrick.  Its  Culture  and 
Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture.  A  practical  handbook 
on  the  most  approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing, 
packing  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an  account  of  the  opera- 
tions in  every  department  of  tobacco  manufacture.  The 
contents  of  this  book  are  based  on  actual  experiments  in  field, 
curing  barn,  packing  house,  factory  and  laI)f)ratory.  It  is  the 
only  work  of  the  kind  in  existence,  and  is  destined  to  be  the 
standard  practical  and  scientific  authority  on  tlic  whole  sub- 
ject of  tobacco   for  many  years.     506  pages  and   150  originrd 

engravings.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $j.oo 

f?) 


Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  complete  treatise  op  the  history, 
description,  methods  of  propagation  and  full  directions  for 
the  successful  culture  of  bulbs  in  the  garden,  dwelling  and 
greenhouse.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years 
made  bulb  growing  a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority 
on  their  cultivation  and  management.  The  cultural  direc- 
tions are  plainly  stated,  practical  and  to  the  point.  The 
illustrations  which  embellish  this  work  have  been  drawn 
from  nature  and  have  been  engraved  especially  for  this 
book.    312  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $i-50 

Fumigation  Methods 

By  Willis  G.  Johnson.  A  timely  up-to-date  book  or 
the  practical  application  of  the  new  methods  for  destroying 
insects  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  carbon  bisulphid,  the 
most  powerful  insecticides  ever  discovered.  It  is  an  indis- 
pensable book  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  nurserymen, 
gardeners,  florists,  millers,  grain  dealers,  transportation  com- 
panies, college  and  experiment  station  workers,  etc.  Illus- 
trated.   313  pages.    5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Diseases  of  Swine 

By  Dr.  R.  A.  Craig,  Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
the  Purdue  University.  A  concise,  practical  and  popular  guide 
to  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  swine.  With 
the  discussions  on  each  disease  are  given  its  causes,  symptoms, 
treatment  and  means  of  prevention.  Every  part  of  the  book 
impresses  the  reader  with  the  fact  that  its  writer  is  thor- 
oughly and  practically  familiar  with  all  the  details  upon  which 
he  treats.  AH  technical  and  strictly  scientific  terms  are 
avoided,  so  far  as  feasible,  thus  making  the  work  at  once 
available  to  the  practical  stock  raiser  as  well  as  to  the  teacher 
and  student.    Illustrated.    5x7  inches.    190  pages.    Cloth.    $0.75 

Spraying  Crops — Why,  When  and  How 

By  Clarence  M.  Weed,  D.Sc.  The  present  fourth  edition 
has  been  rewritten  and  set  throughout  to  bring  it  thoroughly 
up  to  date,  so  that  it  embodies  the  latest  practical  information 
gleaned  by  fruit  growers  and  experiment  station  workers.  So 
much  new  information  has  come  to  light  since  the  third  edi- 
tion was  published  that  this  is  practically  a  new  book,  needed 
by  those  who  have  utilized  the  earlier  editions,  as  well  as  by 
fruit  growers  and  farmers  generally.  Illustrated.  136  pages. 
5x7  inches.     Cloth $0.50 

il9) 


Successful  Fruit  Culture 

By  Samuel  T.  Maynard.  A  practical  guide  to  the  culti- 
vation and  propagation  of  Fruits,  written  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  practical  fruit  grower  who  is  striving  to  make  his 
business  profitable  bj'  growing  the  best  fruit  possible  and  at 
the  least  cost.  It  is  up-to-date  in  every  particular,  and  covers 
the  entire  practice  of  fruit  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  mar- 
keting, forcing,  best  varieties,  etc.,  etc.  It  deals  with  principles 
first  and  with  the  practice  afterwards,  as  the  foundation,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth  and  nourishment  must  always  remain 
the  same,,  while  practice  will  vary  according  to  the  fruit 
grower's  immediate  conditions  and  environments.  Illustrated. 
265  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  A  complete  manual  for  fruit  growers, 
nurserymen,  farmers  and  gardeners,  on  all  known  varieties 
of  plums  and  their  successful  management.  This  book  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  horticultural  literature  of  America.  It  is  a 
complete  monograph  of  the  plums  cultivated  in  and  indigenous 
to  North  America.  It  will  be  found  indispensable  to  the 
scientist  seeking  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  informa- 
tion concerning  this  group,  to  the  nurseryman  who  wishes  to 
handle  his  varieties  accurately  and  intelligently,  and  to  the 
cultivator  who  would  like  to  grow  plums  successfully.  Illus' 
trated.    391  pages.    5  x  7  inches.    Cloth.     .     .     .     .     .     $1.50 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  A  practical  guide  to  the  picking,  stor- 
ing, shipping  and  marketing  of  fruit.  The  principal  subjects 
covered  are  the  fruit  market,  fruit  picking,  sorting  and  pack- 
ing, the  fruit  storage,  evaporation,  canning,  statistics  of  the 
fruit  trade,  fruit  package  laws,  commission  dealers  and  deal- 
ing, cold  storage,  etc.,  etc.  No  progressive  fruit  grower  can 
afford  to  be  without  this  most  valuable  book.  Illustrated. 
232  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Systematic  Pomology 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticiilture  and  landscape 
gardening  in  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college,  formerly 
of  the  university  of  Vermont.  This  is  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language  which  has  ever  made  the  attempt  at  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  treatment  of  systematic  pomology. 
It  presents  clearly  and  in  detail  the  whole  mcthofl  by  which 
fruits    are    studied.      The    book    is    suitably    illustrated.      :jS8 

pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

(U) 


Feeding  Farm  Animals 

By  Professor  Thomas  Shaw.  This  book  is  intended  alike 
for  the  student  and  the  farmer.  The  author  has  succeeded  in 
giving  in  regular  and  orderly  sequence,  and  in  language  so 
simple  that  a  child  can  understand  it,  the  principles  that  govern 
the  science  and  practice  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Professor 
Shaw  is  certainly  to  be  congratulated  on  the  successful  man- 
ner in  which  he  has  accomplished  a  most  difficult  task.  His 
book  is  unquestionably  the  most  practical  work  which  has  ap- 
peared on  the  subject  of  feeding  farm  animals.  Illustrated. 
5J/2  X  8  inches.    Upward  of  500  pages.    Cloth.     .     .     .     $2.00 

Profitable  Dairying 

By  C.  L.  Peck.  A  practical  guide  to  successful  dairy  man- 
agement. The  treatment  of  the  entire  subject  is  thoroughly 
practical,  being  principally  a  description  of  the  methods  prac- 
ticed by  the  author.  A  specially  valuable  part  of  this  book 
consists  of  a  minute  description  of  the  far-famed  model  dairy 
farm  of  Rev.  J.  D.  Detrich,  near  Philadelphia,  Pa.  On  the 
farm  of  fifteen  acres,  which  twenty  years  ago  could  not  main- 
tain one  horse  and  two  cows,  there  are  now  kept  twenty-seven 
dairy  cattle,  in  addition  to  two  horses.  All  the  roughage, 
litter,  bedding,  etc.,  necessary  for  these  animals  are  grown  on 
these  fifteen  acres,  more  than  most  farmers  could  accomplish 
on  one  hundred  acres.  Illustrated.  5x7  inches.  200  pages. 
Cloth $0.75 

Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology 

By  Dr.  H.  W.  Conn,  of  Wesleyan  University.  A  complete 
exposition  of  important  facts  concerning  the  relation  of  bac- 
teria to  various  problems  related  to  milk.  A  book  for  the 
classroom,  laboratory,  factory  and  farm.  Equally  useful  to 
the  teacher,  student,  factory  man  and  practical  dairyman. 
Fully  illustrated  wath  83  original  pictures.  340  pages.  Cloth. 
51/  X  8  inches $1.25 

Modern     Methods     of    Testing     Milk    and     Milk 
Products 

By  L.  L.  VanSlyke.  This  is  a  clear  and  concise  discussion 
of  the  approved  methods  of  testing  milk  and  milk  products. 
All  the  questions  involved  in  the  various  methods  of  testing 
milk  and  cream  are  handled  with  rare  skill  and  yet  in  so  plain 
a  manner  that  they  can  be  fully  understood  by  all.  The  book 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  dairyman,  teacher  or  student. 
Illustrated.    214  pages.    5x7  inches.     ......     $0.75 

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